Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.18 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 4897 2830297 2721419 2026-09-01T21:09:03Z ~2026-47572-48 3110430 /* Disposition */ Spelling errors, grammatical mistakes and pronoun changes (he or she to they). 2830297 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Emergency medicine''' (EM) involves the diagnosis and management of urgent medical conditions, especially life-threatening medical situations like motor vehicle accidents, heart attacks or the ingestion of poisons. EM physicians and pre-hospital personnel, such as ambulance workers provide initial patient care with the aim of providing patient comfort and improving long-term patient outcome. ==Organization of emergency medicine== ''Main article: [[Topic:Emergency Medicine/Organization of emergency medicine|Organization of emergency medicine]]'' ==The specialty of emergency medicine== In some jurisdictions, Emergency Medicine is almost regarded as a sub-discipline to Family Medicine. Most authors would now hold that Emergency Medicine has become sufficiently specialised, in techniques and knowledge scope, to be a discipline in its own right. While there can be a General Practice component to many cases seen in the typical emergency room, most emergency rooms now have to deal with an acuity and complexity of case that general practitioners are no longer sufficiently skilled to handle such cases. For General Practitioners who expect to practise in smaller towns or in rural areas, it is particularly important to incorporate good Emergency Medicine experience into their training. Usually practicing in a hospital setting, EM physicians have training to deal with most medical emergencies, and usually maintain certifications in CPR, at least the first two of the following: *Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) *Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) For those who also operate in the extramural (pre-hospital) setting: *PreHospital Trauma Life Support (PHTLS) *PreHospital Pediatric Emergency Care (PPEC) For those who specialize in pediatric trauma care: *Advanced Pediatric Trauma Life Support (APTLS) In addition, in cases of disasters requiring special resources, many hospitals have protocols to rapidly deploy on-site and off-site staff. The management of both emergency department (ED) and inpatient medical emergencies are guided by the basic ACLS and ATLS principles and protocols. Irrespective of the nature of the clinical emergency, maintenance of adequate blood pressure, adequate blood flow to vital organs and adequate oxygenation and ventilation are important guiding principles. (Although sometimes these principles must be deliberately broken, as in the deliberate clamping of an arterial bleeder to prevent exsanguination). The first step in emergency medicine is triage: determining who (if there are multiple casualties) requires medical assistance first. Triage is done at multiple stages in the care process, especially in case of incidents involving many casualties. * On-site personnel decides which victims are treated on the scene and which are to be taken to a hospital, and in which order. * At the entrance to the ED, an ED worker (usually a nurse) determines to which treatment room each victim should be taken. * The ED physician checks which patient they need to attend to first. ==Introduction to emergency medicine== The art of emergency medicine can best be described using the following ideas examined upon initial evaluation: *Airway *Breathing *Circulation *Disability (neurologic) These point are known as the ABC(D)'s of Emergency Medicine. Then the general steps of practicing Emergency Medicine: *Assessment *Diagnosis *Treatment *Disposition The ABC's of emergency medicine are basic to life support. Every time one enters into an emergency one should determine whether the patient has an open airway, if they are breathing in an unobstructed manner, if they have an adequate pulse (circulation), if they have any obvious sources of bleeding, and if they have any (neurologic) disability (e.g. a broken neck that has led to neurological injury.) Assessment using the ABC's is the cornerstone of emergency care and it should be a continous and ongoing process. Just because initally someone's airway is patent doesn't mean it will necessarily stay that way. So the key point is to stay flexible in assessment and treatment. The mark of an ED physician is someone who can manage the airway (intubate), someone who can manage the breathing of a patient (set a ventilator) and somone who can provide cardiac or respiratory support (ACLS treatment of cardiac problems like shock, myocardial infarction or arrhythmias.) ==Disposition== The EM physician must decide where a patient should go after stabilization: home, to the operating room for surgery, to a regular nursing floor, to a step-down unit, to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) etc. Thus a role central to the EM physician is triage, and their best tool is often the telephone, in asking for advice and help. If, for instance, the EM physician encounters a patient suffering from a myocardial infarction, they might start MONA (Morphine, Oxygen, Nitroglycerine and Aspirin) and promptly contact a cardiologist to take over care since "time is myocardium". In the United States, ED physicians have completed a residency in Emergency Medicine and most U.S. hospitals require that the ED physician is board-certified in Emergency Medicine (EM). Previously, ED physicians may have trained in Internal Medicine, Orthopaedics or Surgery; however, EM is now recognized as a specialty that requires unique training. Other countries may still use generalists in the ED. ==Clinical crisis protocol== The "clinical crisis protocol" is an approach to dealing with urgent problems when a patient's life is in danger and there is limited time to act. Thus, diagnosis of the problem must be accompanied by initial empirical treatment, i.e. diagnosis and treatment must be carried out concurrently, even when it's far from clear what is going on. For example, severe bradycardia (heart rate < 40) may or may not be associated with symptoms such as syncope and can be due to many different causes, (e.g. third degree heart block, beta blocker overdose, use of an anti-cholinesterase without sufficient anticholinergic (e.g. neostigmine without glycopyrrolate or atropine), increased intracranial pressure, etc.) An approach to rapidly assess the patient the trouble is sometimes needed: '''LOOK''': Color (cyanosis, erythema, pallor), respirations (rate, pattern), diaphoresis, bleeding/dressings/drains, neck (jugular venous distenstion, tracheal deviation), restlessness, discomfort '''LISTEN''': breath sounds (?equal), wheezes, crackles, stridor, heart sounds, patient’s complaints, observations of bystanders '''FEEL''': pulse (rate, intensity, pattern), grip strength (esp. after muscle relaxants given), forehead (temperature, diaphoresis) '''GET''': help, vital signs, old chart, crash cart, labs, chest x-ray... Again, we emphasize that initial empirical treatment is essential while we are finding out what is going on. For example, in the case of symptomatic severe bradycardia, intravenous atropine (0.6 - 1 mg) should be given (among other things). ==LIST OF TOPICS== ==Circulatory emergencies== ===Cardiology: circulatory emergencies=== *Ventricular tachycardia / ventricular fibrillation *Loss of pulse in an extremity (esp. following vascular surgery) *Severe bradycardia or other rhythm disturbance *Severe hypotension or hypertension *Myocardial ischemia (with or without angina or electrocardiographic changes) *Angina, acute coronary insufficiency, myocardial infarction *Aortic dissection or aneurysm *Cardiac arrhythmias *Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ===Shock=== Shock is the lack of perfusion of vital organs, that is, blood flow and pressure are inadequate to facilitate gas transport. Types of shock include: '''Distributive shock''' * Neurogenic shock * Anaphylactic shock * Septic shock '''Cardiogenic shock''' * Valve disease * Cardiomyopathy '''Hypovolemic shock''' * Dehydration * Hemorrhagic shock (blood loss) ==Respiratory emergencies== ===Pulmonology: respiratory emergencies=== *Cyanosis / hypoxemia *Stridor (noisy inspiration from partial upper airway obstruction) *Respiratory failure *Smoke inhalation *Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ==Neurological and psychiatrical emergencies== ===Neurology: neurological emergencies=== *Grand-mal seizures / unresponsive patient / coma *Cerebrovascular accident (stroke) *Headaches (especially migraines, cluster headaches, and those due to intracerebral bleeds) *Epileptic seizure ===Psychiatry: psychiatrical emergencies=== *Post-traumatic stress syndrome ==Abdominal emergencies== ===Abdominal (surgical) emergencies=== *Abdominal pain *Appendicitis (with or without peritonitis) *Hernia (inguinal, incisional, femoral, or hiatal) ===Urology: urological emergencies=== *Urinary retention ==Injuries== ===Penetrating injuries=== *Bleeding *Gunshot wounds *Stab wounds ===Non-penetrating injuries=== *Burns (first degree, second degree, third degree) *Drowning and near-drowning *Electric shock / electrocution / electric burns ==Metabolical emergencies== ===Endocrinology: endocrinological emergencies=== *Diabetic coma ===Poisoning=== *Drug overdose ==Critical care medicine== *ICU monitoring *Cardiac monitoring (CVP, PAOP, CO etc.) *Neurologic monitoring (ICP etc.) ==Pediatry: pediatrical emergencies== *Neonatal resuscitation [[Category:Page moved from Wikibooks]] [[Category:Emergency Medicine|*]] [[Category:Medical School Program]] n004p1ied9r1ek0uad6y0kzlivj2q85 2830299 2830297 2026-09-01T21:14:55Z ~2026-47572-48 3110430 /* Clinical crisis protocol */ Grammatical errors 2830299 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Emergency medicine''' (EM) involves the diagnosis and management of urgent medical conditions, especially life-threatening medical situations like motor vehicle accidents, heart attacks or the ingestion of poisons. EM physicians and pre-hospital personnel, such as ambulance workers provide initial patient care with the aim of providing patient comfort and improving long-term patient outcome. ==Organization of emergency medicine== ''Main article: [[Topic:Emergency Medicine/Organization of emergency medicine|Organization of emergency medicine]]'' ==The specialty of emergency medicine== In some jurisdictions, Emergency Medicine is almost regarded as a sub-discipline to Family Medicine. Most authors would now hold that Emergency Medicine has become sufficiently specialised, in techniques and knowledge scope, to be a discipline in its own right. While there can be a General Practice component to many cases seen in the typical emergency room, most emergency rooms now have to deal with an acuity and complexity of case that general practitioners are no longer sufficiently skilled to handle such cases. For General Practitioners who expect to practise in smaller towns or in rural areas, it is particularly important to incorporate good Emergency Medicine experience into their training. Usually practicing in a hospital setting, EM physicians have training to deal with most medical emergencies, and usually maintain certifications in CPR, at least the first two of the following: *Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) *Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) For those who also operate in the extramural (pre-hospital) setting: *PreHospital Trauma Life Support (PHTLS) *PreHospital Pediatric Emergency Care (PPEC) For those who specialize in pediatric trauma care: *Advanced Pediatric Trauma Life Support (APTLS) In addition, in cases of disasters requiring special resources, many hospitals have protocols to rapidly deploy on-site and off-site staff. The management of both emergency department (ED) and inpatient medical emergencies are guided by the basic ACLS and ATLS principles and protocols. Irrespective of the nature of the clinical emergency, maintenance of adequate blood pressure, adequate blood flow to vital organs and adequate oxygenation and ventilation are important guiding principles. (Although sometimes these principles must be deliberately broken, as in the deliberate clamping of an arterial bleeder to prevent exsanguination). The first step in emergency medicine is triage: determining who (if there are multiple casualties) requires medical assistance first. Triage is done at multiple stages in the care process, especially in case of incidents involving many casualties. * On-site personnel decides which victims are treated on the scene and which are to be taken to a hospital, and in which order. * At the entrance to the ED, an ED worker (usually a nurse) determines to which treatment room each victim should be taken. * The ED physician checks which patient they need to attend to first. ==Introduction to emergency medicine== The art of emergency medicine can best be described using the following ideas examined upon initial evaluation: *Airway *Breathing *Circulation *Disability (neurologic) These point are known as the ABC(D)'s of Emergency Medicine. Then the general steps of practicing Emergency Medicine: *Assessment *Diagnosis *Treatment *Disposition The ABC's of emergency medicine are basic to life support. Every time one enters into an emergency one should determine whether the patient has an open airway, if they are breathing in an unobstructed manner, if they have an adequate pulse (circulation), if they have any obvious sources of bleeding, and if they have any (neurologic) disability (e.g. a broken neck that has led to neurological injury.) Assessment using the ABC's is the cornerstone of emergency care and it should be a continous and ongoing process. Just because initally someone's airway is patent doesn't mean it will necessarily stay that way. So the key point is to stay flexible in assessment and treatment. The mark of an ED physician is someone who can manage the airway (intubate), someone who can manage the breathing of a patient (set a ventilator) and somone who can provide cardiac or respiratory support (ACLS treatment of cardiac problems like shock, myocardial infarction or arrhythmias.) ==Disposition== The EM physician must decide where a patient should go after stabilization: home, to the operating room for surgery, to a regular nursing floor, to a step-down unit, to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) etc. Thus a role central to the EM physician is triage, and their best tool is often the telephone, in asking for advice and help. If, for instance, the EM physician encounters a patient suffering from a myocardial infarction, they might start MONA (Morphine, Oxygen, Nitroglycerine and Aspirin) and promptly contact a cardiologist to take over care since "time is myocardium". In the United States, ED physicians have completed a residency in Emergency Medicine and most U.S. hospitals require that the ED physician is board-certified in Emergency Medicine (EM). Previously, ED physicians may have trained in Internal Medicine, Orthopaedics or Surgery; however, EM is now recognized as a specialty that requires unique training. Other countries may still use generalists in the ED. ==Clinical crisis protocol== The "clinical crisis protocol" is an approach to dealing with urgent problems when a patient's life is in danger and there is limited time to act. Thus, diagnosis of the problem must be accompanied by initial empirical treatment, i.e. diagnosis and treatment must be carried out concurrently, even when it's far from clear what is going on. For example, severe bradycardia (heart rate < 40) may or may not be associated with symptoms such as syncope and can be due to many different causes, (e.g. third degree heart block, beta blocker overdose, use of an anti-cholinesterase without sufficient anticholinergic (e.g. neostigmine without glycopyrrolate or atropine), increased intracranial pressure, etc.) An approach to rapidly assess the patient the trouble is sometimes needed: '''LOOK''': color (cyanosis, erythema, pallor), respirations (rate, pattern), diaphoresis, bleeding/dressings/drains, neck (jugular venous distenstion, tracheal deviation), restlessness, discomfort '''LISTEN''': breath sounds (are they equal?), wheezes, crackles, stridor, heart sounds, patient’s complaints, observations of bystanders '''FEEL''': pulse (rate, intensity, pattern), grip strength (esp. after muscle relaxants given), forehead (temperature, diaphoresis) '''GET''': help, vital signs, old chart, crash cart, labs, chest x-ray... Again, we emphasize that initial empirical treatment is essential while we are finding out what is going on. For example, in the case of symptomatic severe bradycardia, intravenous atropine (0.6 - 1 mg) should be given (among other things) ==LIST OF TOPICS== ==Circulatory emergencies== ===Cardiology: circulatory emergencies=== *Ventricular tachycardia / ventricular fibrillation *Loss of pulse in an extremity (esp. following vascular surgery) *Severe bradycardia or other rhythm disturbance *Severe hypotension or hypertension *Myocardial ischemia (with or without angina or electrocardiographic changes) *Angina, acute coronary insufficiency, myocardial infarction *Aortic dissection or aneurysm *Cardiac arrhythmias *Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ===Shock=== Shock is the lack of perfusion of vital organs, that is, blood flow and pressure are inadequate to facilitate gas transport. Types of shock include: '''Distributive shock''' * Neurogenic shock * Anaphylactic shock * Septic shock '''Cardiogenic shock''' * Valve disease * Cardiomyopathy '''Hypovolemic shock''' * Dehydration * Hemorrhagic shock (blood loss) ==Respiratory emergencies== ===Pulmonology: respiratory emergencies=== *Cyanosis / hypoxemia *Stridor (noisy inspiration from partial upper airway obstruction) *Respiratory failure *Smoke inhalation *Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ==Neurological and psychiatrical emergencies== ===Neurology: neurological emergencies=== *Grand-mal seizures / unresponsive patient / coma *Cerebrovascular accident (stroke) *Headaches (especially migraines, cluster headaches, and those due to intracerebral bleeds) *Epileptic seizure ===Psychiatry: psychiatrical emergencies=== *Post-traumatic stress syndrome ==Abdominal emergencies== ===Abdominal (surgical) emergencies=== *Abdominal pain *Appendicitis (with or without peritonitis) *Hernia (inguinal, incisional, femoral, or hiatal) ===Urology: urological emergencies=== *Urinary retention ==Injuries== ===Penetrating injuries=== *Bleeding *Gunshot wounds *Stab wounds ===Non-penetrating injuries=== *Burns (first degree, second degree, third degree) *Drowning and near-drowning *Electric shock / electrocution / electric burns ==Metabolical emergencies== ===Endocrinology: endocrinological emergencies=== *Diabetic coma ===Poisoning=== *Drug overdose ==Critical care medicine== *ICU monitoring *Cardiac monitoring (CVP, PAOP, CO etc.) *Neurologic monitoring (ICP etc.) ==Pediatry: pediatrical emergencies== *Neonatal resuscitation [[Category:Page moved from Wikibooks]] [[Category:Emergency Medicine|*]] [[Category:Medical School Program]] de4ez7ksx0rgnzcudi7qi5tl7aszcd9 102 7576 2830413 2828952 2026-09-02T05:57:29Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3089598 /* Literature */ 2830413 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} == Introductory Ancient Greek Language == [[Image:Socrates Louvre.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Σωκράτης]] [[Image:Bust Athena Velletri Glyptothek Munich 213.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ἀθηνᾶ]] Welcome to the course "Introductory Ancient Greek Language", part of [[Topic:Foreign Language Learning|Foreign Language Learning]] and [[School:Language and Literature|Language and Literature school]], and the 1st course within [[Greek classics]]. Greek was the ''lingua franca'' of the Mediterranean world from the rise of the Hellenic states after the Persian War until the rise of Rome. Its basis as the uniting factor of the Greek city-states makes knowledge of the language and its history vital to an understanding of the rise of Greek culture in the Western World. This course will prepare students to read Classical Greek texts by building a solid foundation in rudimentary grammar and vocabulary, as well as give a broad overview of its history. It will begin on a very basic level, so if you have some experience, you may choose to move on to a more advanced course, or assist in lesson plans with this one. However, even a seasoned reader of Greek may benefit from a basic review. If you're coming here with no experience of the Ancient Greek language, then congratulations on your choice to begin learning it! You are in for an exciting adventure that will not only give you knowledge of a new language, but a new way of thinking, opening doors to understanding the roots of philosophy, science, and Western thought. The course will be divided into several important divisions, each one hopefully no longer than four lessons followed by a review. The goal is to prepare the student with a foundation in Classical Greek, on which he or she can later build a higher fluency. == Student Questions == If you happen to become stumped or just have a general question out of curiosity, then feel free to message any recent active member involved in creating this course. I intend to add much more to this page, but I don't have a huge amount of time to work on it. I am looking into adding some exercises for translation and adding some study guide outlines to later pages. == History == * [[w:Neolithic_Greece|Lesson 1]] - Neolithic Greece * [[w:Aegean_civilization|Lesson 2]] - Bronze Age Greece * [[w:Ancient_Greece|Lesson 3]] - Ancient Greece * [[w:Hellenistic period|Lesson 4]] - Hellenistic Greece * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/History/Review|Review]] == Grammar == ===Alphabet, Breathings, Accents, Articles=== After having completed these first four lessons, the student would be able to read and write with Greek characters. Some vocabulary will be introduced, but the goal will be to familiarize yourself with understanding the alphabet in order to begin learning the language. * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 1|Lesson 1]] - The Alphabet * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 2|Lesson 2]] - Breathings and Accents * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 3|Lesson 3]] - The Definite Article * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 4|Lesson 4]] - Pronouns * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 5|Lesson 5]] - Conjunctions * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review|Review]] ===Introduction to Verbs and Nouns=== * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 6|Lesson 6]] - Present, Active and Middle-Passive, Indicative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 7|Lesson 7]] - First, Second, and Third Noun Declensions * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 8|Lesson 8]] - Basic Prepositions, Negation * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 9|Lesson 9]] - Present Indicative of "To Be" * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 2|Review]] ===Verb Forms of the Active Indicative=== * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 10|Lesson 10]] - Imperfect, Active, Indicative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 11|Lesson 11]] - Future, Active, Indicative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 12|Lesson 12]] - Aorist (1st and 2nd), Active, Indicative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 13|Lesson 13]] - Perfect, Active, Indicative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 14|Lesson 14]] - Pluperfect, Active, Indicative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 3|Review]] ===Introduction to Adjectives=== * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 15|Lesson 15]] - 2-1-2 Adjectives * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 16|Lesson 16]] - 3-1-3 Adjectives * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 17|Lesson 17]] - Participles * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 4|Review]] ===More Moods === * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 18|Lesson 18]] - Subjunctive * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 19|Lesson 19]] - Optative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 20|Lesson 20]] - Imperative * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 21|Lesson 21]] - Infinitive * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 5|Review]] ===Advanced Syntax=== * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 22|Lesson 22]] - The Genitive Absolute * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 23|Lesson 23]] - Conditional Clauses * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 24|Lesson 24]] - Particles * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 6|Review]] == Vocabulary == ===Unit 1: Basics=== * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Vocabulary/Lesson 1|Lesson 1]] - Basic Sentences * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Vocabulary/Lesson 2|Lesson 2]] - Numbers 1 to 100 * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Vocabulary/Lesson 3|Lesson 3]] - Days of the Week (Attic Calendar) * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Vocabulary/Lesson 4|Lesson 4]] - Time and Weather * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Vocabulary/Lesson 5|Lesson 5]] - 100 Common Verbs * [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Vocabulary/Quiz 1|Quiz]] ===Unit 2: Nature=== * ===Unit 3: Science=== * ===Unit 4: Mathematics=== * == Typing Greek Text and Word List == * [[Enabling Greek Characters on Your Keyboard|Typing Greek Text]] * [[An Ancient Greek Word List]] * [[wikt:Category:Ancient Greek lemmas|Wiktionary's Word List]] == Literature == * [https://archive.org/details/newtestamentino00west/page/6/mode/2up| The Greek New Testament] * [https://archive.org/details/septuagintversio1879bren/page/n15/mode/2up| The Septuagint] * [https://archive.org/details/platosrepublicgr01plat/page/n23/mode/2up| The Republic] * [https://archive.org/details/JL_Heiberg___EUCLIDS_ELEMENTS_OF_GEOMETRY/page/n5/mode/2up| Euclid's Elements] * [https://archive.org/details/iliadmurray01homeuoft/page/n11/mode/2up| The Iliad] * [https://archive.org/details/homersodysseyedi01home/page/n11/mode/2up| The Odyssey] Please place any questions or concerns on the discuss page for this portal or message me directly via my talk page, I only recently took up this project after finding it alone for so long, so I'd love to hear your input or address any questions you may have. [[User:Wobblywatch|Wobblywatch]] ([[User talk:Wobblywatch|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wobblywatch|contribs]]) 00:23, 8 April 2019 (UTC) [[Category:Language introductions]][[Category:Ancient Greek Language]][[el:Τμήμα:Αρχαία Ελληνικά]] jsk0zi9iu7ofxrx2b1wgtqdhio4ngwh 0 8702 2830306 2625052 2026-09-01T23:21:05Z Michael Ten 654933 fix formatting some 2830306 wikitext text/x-wiki See The Wikipedia articles, [[w:Home economics|Home economics]] and [[w:Family and consumer science|Family and consumer science]] (under merge proposal as of August, 2014) The content below has not been fact-checked. The lede had a date error, the probable result of a transcription of 1899 to 1989, that's been fixed. --------- Home economics, in its early beginnings, is a discipline whose basic mission is that of helping individuals and families improve their lives. The nomenclature "Home Economics" was adopted at the first Lake Placid Conference in 1899, by a committee composed of eight educators and scientists. It was derived from the Greek word "oikonomia", which means household management. In 1902, during the fourth Lake Placid Conference, the home and family was established as the focus of study in home economics. The subject matter for home economics was then defined to include "(a)four forms of knowledge-laws, conditions, principles and ideals-and (b)three kinds of content to know-one's immediate physical environment, one's nature as a social being, and especially the relation between the two" (Florencio, 1995; East, 1980). To date, home economics remains true to its basic mission to "improve individual and family life amidst changing social, political, economic and physical conditions" (Gabriel, 1998). In 1996, the University of the Philippines-College of Home Economics faculty collectively defined home economics as “the study of families and the management of resources available to them for the satisfaction of basic needs in changing environments” (UP CHE, 1996). Home Economics is unique in its holistic view of daily living. The issues and concerns about daily living of individuals and families are approached both from its physical or material and relational dimension of life and their interaction (Florencio in Gabriel, 1988). This comprehensive view of home economics gave rise to several sub-disciplines and professional careers, which include home economics education, family life and child development, clothing technology, [[interior design]], food science, [[Nutrition and Wellness|nutrition]], and [[Hospitality management|hotel and restaurant administration]]. These sub-disciplines remain rooted to the home economics discipline because of its focus on serving families, individuals and consumers in their day-to-day lives (Gabriel). ==References== * East, M. (1980). Home economics: past, present and future. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon, Inc. * Florencio, C. (1995). Families and home economics (Not by bread alone but neither without it). Monograph Series No. 1. Quezon City: UP CHE. * Gabriel, F. (1998). The role and contribution of home economics to national development. The U.P. Home Economics Journal. 25(25-33). ==Related Article== * McGregor, S. (2006). Sustaining home economics in the 21st century: Root system as metaphor. Keynote address during the First International Home Economics Congress. == External links on Home economics == * [http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/h/hearth/browse/title/6060826.html Lake Placid Conference Proceedings], 1899- (The 1899, 1900, and 1901 conferences are covered in the "1901" book.) == Resources == This resource was started by a user who wrote: :;''Living on Your Own 101'' :''"Not everyone takes Home Ec in high school. Even those that do don't always learn or remember everything that might come in handy someday. This is for all those guys (or girls) that end up with loads of pink shirts or want to eat something other than ramen or hot pockets."'' Material from that user is organized on subpages under resources shown below, along with other relevant Wikiversity resources. *[[/Food/]] *[[/Medicine/]] :If you're not feeling well, chances are, you're not in the mood to hit the books. Check out [http://webmd.com webmed.com] to see if your symptoms are a sign of something you should see a doctor about soon, even if they seem like no big deal. *[[/Sewing/]] *[[/Household equipment/]] *[[/Cleaning/]] :*[[/How to clean a toilet/]] *[[/Hygiene/]] [[Category:Home economics| ]] ps5h1wialomw14bt59ua78jo8lgqi19 0 27149 2830312 2778805 2026-09-01T23:32:21Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Courses and modules */ * [[Epistemology of Psychiatry]] 2830312 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Epistemology''' deals with the question of how "knowledge is acquired" and how reliable that knowledge is. In essence, it is the theory of knowledge, and has focused on how knowledge relates to concepts such as truth, belief, and evidence. Epistemology is a very general topic and is constantly debated. __NOTOC__ A good place to start in the study of epistemology is the definition of "knowledge". A simple and old answer is "a justified, true belief". However, [[w:Edmund Gettier|Edmund Gettier]] famously [[Introduction to Epistemology#Gettier and Justified True Belief|argued against that definition]]. ==Learning readings and media== ===Wikipedia=== * [[w:Epistemology|Epistemology]] ==Courses and modules== * [[Introduction to Epistemology]] * [[Historical Introduction to Philosophy/Epistemology]] * [[Szaszian studies]] - The ideas of psychiatrist and emeritus professor Thomas Szasz rely significantly on epistemological reasoning. * ''Philosophy of representations'' - The following resources present philosophical essays on representations and their role in epistemology. You can read the full essays as a PDF here: : [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_reflection_on_Philosophy_of_Representations.pdf ''A reflection on Philosophy of Representations''] : [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:From_Entropy_Modifier_to_Engineered_Exograms.pdf ''From Entropy Modifier to Engineered Exograms''] * [[Epistemology of Psychiatry]] ==See also== * [[w:Epistemology|Epistemology]] * [[School:Philosophy]] * [[Philosophy message board]] * [[Introduction to Philosophy]] ==External links== * [http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html 'Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?'] [[Category:Epistemology]] [[Category:Philosophy stubs]] 8hnrbmtsy9vkz9fkuwmnb8om8t9jpvp 0 28297 2830307 1613328 2026-09-01T23:23:00Z Michael Ten 654933 added == Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas == 2830307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} The goals of this learning project are to come away with a better idea of how search and p2p technology is implemented. Additionally, if it is found to be practical and feasible, a distributed p2p search engine will be utilized or created. ==Subpages== Subpages can be created - like [[/concepts]] (for concepts involved in this learning project) == Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas == * What is the current state of the art for decentralized search engines? * What sort of open source node software could be developed that could functionally act as a distributed P2P search engine? == External links == * [http://www.openp2p.com/pub/t/74 Distributed search engines] * [http://www.grub.org/ Grub] === Sourceforge projects === * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/harvest/ Harvest] - A distributed search engine program. * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/brainnt/ Brain Network Search Engine] - P2P search engine program allowing ''dynamic connections of nodes''. * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/yacy/ YACY distributed WWW search engine] - Just what the name sounds like... ([http://yacy.net/ Official site]) * [http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=308 Sourceforge distributed computer projects] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/clucene CLucene - a C++ search engine] - A C++ port of Lucene * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/focused-crawler Combine focused crawler] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/friend2friend Friend2Friend] - A decentralised network scripting language [[Category:Networking]] [[Category:Search engines]] [[Category:Learning projects]] ou0tmrozi3yaq2fxn8za2lvenzq0a5p 0 28414 2830305 2138270 2026-09-01T23:20:15Z Michael Ten 654933 improved page layout. 2830305 wikitext text/x-wiki The goals of this project are to learn about systems that could possibly be integrated into a [[robotics|robotic]] system that can complete a variety of tasks. __NOTOC__ ==Process and other subpages== {{Col}} * [[/Brainstorming/]] ** [[/Brainstorming/Basic functions/|Basic functions]] ** [[/Brainstorming/Visual systems/|Visual systems]] ** [[/Brainstorming/Physical systems/|Physical systems]] ** [[/Brainstorming/Artificial intelligence and cognitive systems/|Logic systems]] ** [[/Brainstorming/Human interaction/|Human interaction]] * [[/External links/]] {{Col/end}} {{Col}} ==Project news== '''March 8, 2007''' - Project started. ==Interested users== * [[User:Domokato|Domokato]] * [[User:Projekt_ANA|Projekt ANA]] {{Col/end}} ==Readings== [[Image:Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg|thumb|270px|Shadow hand.]] ===Wikipedia=== {{col list|3| * [[w:Pneumatic artificial muscles|Pneumatic artificial muscles]] * [[w:Foot-pound force|Foot-pound force]] * [[w:Torque|Torque]] * [[w:Biomechanics|Biomechanics]] * [[w:Prosthetic|Prosthetic]] * [[w:Mechanical engineering|Mechanical engineering]] * [[w:Artificial limb|Artificial limb]] * [[w:Actroid|Actroid]] * [[w:Android|Android]] * [[w:Artificial intelligence|Artificial intelligence]] * [[w:Humanoid robot|Humanoid robot]] * [[w:Driverless car|Driverless car]] * [[w:Robot|Robot]] * [[w:Computer vision|Computer vision]] * [[w:Speech synthesis|Speech synthesis]] }} ==See also== * [[Automation]] ==External links == * Februrary 2016 '''''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVlhMGQgDkY State of the Art Atlas Robot by Boston Dynamics]''''' * March 2008 '''''[http://www.physorg.com/news125848240.html A team of European researchers have developed an artificial cognitive system that learns from experience and observation rather than relying on predefined rules and models.]''''' * March 2008 '''''[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/03/19/artificial-muscle.html Artificial Muscle Heals Itself]''''' ===Academic papers=== * [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00685-3 ''Soft material for soft actuators''] [[Category:Anthropomorphic robotics| ]] [[Category:Engineering and technology learning projects]] [[Category:Research projects]] gthu0uop4eno5jf7jpmqbvs0gckxzyh 0 40563 2830321 2443070 2026-09-01T23:50:32Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Discussion questions */ added and updated section title. How can artificial intelligence be utilized to promote and share open source designs? 2830321 wikitext text/x-wiki The resources on this page enable learners to access materials related to the subject of ‘Open design’. The materials consist of internal contents; sourced from articles in Wikipedia and external hyperlinks. Open design is a disruptive, multifaceted construct that has been shaped by influential conditions and properties. By categorizing the materials into distinct sections, this resource page explores some of these conditions and properties, in a way that informs the reader and nurtures a better understanding of the subject area. Teachers and those who are familiar in this subject area are actively encouraged to extend this page. ==Introduction== This section introduces the subject area by first asking ‘What is Open design?’ According to Wikipedia [[w:Open_design|Open design]] is the development of physical products, machines and systems through use of publicly shared design information. Open design involves the making of both free and open-source software (FOSS) as well as open-source hardware. The process is generally facilitated by the Internet and often performed without monetary compensation. The goals and philosophy are identical to that of the open-source movement, but are implemented for the development of physical products rather than software. Open design is a form of co-creation, where the final product is designed by the users, rather than an external stakeholder such as a private company. ==Movements== This section examines some of the influential movements that has helped shape open design. In late 1998, Dr. Sepehr Kiani (a PhD in mechanical engineering from MIT) realized that designers could benefit from open source policies, and in early 1999 he convinced Dr. Ryan Vallance and Dr. Samir Nayfeh of the potential benefits of open design in machine design applications. Together they established the Open Design Foundation (ODF) as a non-profit corporation, and set out to develop an Open Design Definition. The idea of open design was taken up, either simultaneously or subsequently, by several other groups and individuals. The principles of open design are closely similar to those of open-source hardware design, which emerged in March 1998 when Reinoud Lamberts of the Delft University of Technology proposed on his “Open Design Circuits” website the creation of a hardware design community in the spirit of free software. Ronen Kadushin coined the title "Open Design" in his 2004 Master’s thesis, and the term was later formalized in the 2010 Open Design Manifesto. Moreover, the [[w:Open-source_movement|open source movement]] has been an influential factor in shaping open design. Rooted in software, the open source movement is a broad-reaching movement of individuals who support the use of open source licenses. Open source software is made available for anybody to use or modify, as its source code is made available. Some [[w:Open-source_software|open source software]] is based on a share-alike principle, whereby users are free to pass on the software subject to the stipulation that any enhancements or changes are just as freely available to the public, while other open source projects may be freely incorporated into any derivative work, open source or proprietary. Open source software promotes learning and understanding through the dissemination of understanding. The main difference between open source and traditional proprietary software is in user and property rights, the conditions of use imposed on the user by the software license, as opposed to differences in the programming code. ==Open source software== Open design consists of software and hardware components. This section will review the former and list prominent open source concepts in software relative to open design. {| class="wikitable" !Concept !General Description |- |[[w:Free_and_open-source_software|Free and open-source software]] |Free and open-source software (FOSS) is computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright and the source code is usually hidden from the users. |- |[[w:Free_software|Free software]] |Free software is computer software distributed under terms that allow users to run the software for any purpose as well as to study, change, and distribute the software and any adapted versions. The right to study and modify software entails access to its source code. For computer programs that are covered by copyright law, this is achieved with a software license by which the author grants users the aforementioned freedom. Software that is not covered by copyright law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain, or otherwise available without restrictions. |- |[[w:Open-source_software|Open-source software]] |Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is the most prominent example of open-source development. |} ==Open source hardware== Open design consists of software and hardware components. This section will review the latter and list prominent open source concepts in hardware relative to open design. {| class="wikitable" !Concept !General Description |- |[[w:Open-source_hardware|Open hardware]] |Open-source hardware (OSH), consists of physical artifacts of technology designed and offered by the open design movement. Both free and open-source software (FOSS) as well as open-source hardware is created by this open-source culture movement and applies a like concept to a variety of components. It is sometimes, thus, referred to as FOSH (free and open-source hardware). The term usually means that information about the hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it - coupling it closely to the maker movement. Hardware design (i.e. mechanical drawings, schematics, bills of material, PCB layout data, HDL source code and integrated circuit layout data), in addition to the software that drives the hardware, are all released under free/libre terms. The original sharer gains feedback and potentially improvements on the design from the FOSH community. |- |[[w:Open-source_computing_hardware|Open-source computing hardware]] |Open-source computing hardware are computer systems or elements with open design—designed as open-source hardware, using open-source principles. Open source hardware projects that includes computer systems and components include: 1) [[w:Bug_Labs|Bug Labs]] – a handheld prototyping system based on the Texas Instruments OMAP3530 with ARM Cortex-A8 (600 MHz) and Angstrom Linux and 2) [[w:Ethernut|Ethernut]] – open-source electronics prototyping platform for building tiny embedded Ethernet devices. |- |[[w:Open-source_robotics|Open-source robotics]] |Open-source robotics (OSR), is a branch of robotics where the physical artifacts of the subject are offered by the open design movement. This open design movement applied to the field of robotics makes use of open-source hardware and free and open source software providing blueprints, schematics, and source code. The term usually means that information about the hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it - coupling it closely to the maker movement. |} == Models of innovation == Open design may use different models to innovate and develop its products. This section lists and reviews some of these prominent open models. {| class="wikitable" !Concept !General Description |- |[[w:Crowdsourcing|Crowdsouring]] |Crowdsourcing is the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people, especially an online community, rather than from employees or suppliers. It was coined in 2005 as a portmanteau of crowd and outsourcing. This mode of sourcing is often used to divide work between participants, and has a history of success prior to the digital age—"offline". By definition, crowdsourcing combines the efforts of numerous self-selected volunteers or part-time workers; each person's contribution combines with those of others to achieve a cumulative result. |- |[[w:Open_innovation|Open innovation]] |Open innovation is a term promoted by Henry Chesbrough, adjunct professor and faculty director of the Center for Open Innovation at the Haas School of Business at the University of California, in a book of the same name, though the idea and discussion about some consequences (especially the interfirm cooperation in R&D) date as far back as the 1960s. The term refers to the use of both inflows and outflows of knowledge to improve internal innovation and expand the markets for external exploitation of innovation. |- |[[w:User_innovation|User innovation]] |User innovation refers to innovation by intermediate users (e.g. user firms) or consumer users (individual end-users or user communities), rather than by suppliers (producers or manufacturers). Eric von Hippel and others observed that many products and services are actually developed or at least refined, by users, at the site of implementation and use. These ideas are then moved back into the supply network. This is because products are developed to meet the widest possible need; when individual users face problems that the majority of consumers do not, they have no choice but to develop their own modifications to existing products, or entirely new products, to solve their issues. Often, user innovators will share their ideas with manufacturers in hopes of having them produce the product, a process called free revealing.  |- |[[w:Prosumer|Prosumer]] |A prosumer is a person who consumes and produces media. It is derived from "prosumption", a dot-com era business term meaning "production by consumers". These terms were coined by American futurist Alvin Toffler, and were widely used by many technology writers of the time."Prosumer" is also a trade term, used from a business perspective, for high-end electronic devices (such as digital cameras), meaning a price point between "professional" and "consumer" devices. |- |[[w:Co-creation|Co-creation]] |Co-creation is a management initiative, or form of economic strategy, that brings different parties together (for instance, a company and a group of customers), in order to jointly produce a mutually valued outcome. Co-created value arises in the form of personalized, unique experiences for the customer (value-in-use) and ongoing revenue, learning and enhanced market performance drivers for the firm (loyalty, relationships, customer word of mouth). Value is co-created with customers if and when a customer is able to personalize his or her experience using a firm's product-service proposition – in the lifetime of its use – to a level that is best suited to get his or her job(s) or tasks done and which allows the firm to derive greater value from its product-service investment in the form of new knowledge, higher revenues/profitability and/or superior brand value/loyalty. |- |[[w:Participatory_design|Participatory design]] |Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is an approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Participatory design is an approach which is focused on processes and procedures of design and is not a design style. The term is used in a variety of fields e.g. software design, urban design, architecture, landscape architecture, product design, sustainability, graphic design, planning, and even medicine as a way of creating environments that are more responsive and appropriate to their inhabitants' and users' cultural, emotional, spiritual and practical needs. It is one approach to place making. |- |[[w:Modular_design|Modular design]] |Modular design, or "modularity in design", is a design approach that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules or skids, that can be independently created and then used in different systems. A modular system can be characterized by functional partitioning into discrete scalable, reusable modules, rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces, and making use of industry standards for interfaces.  |- |[[w:Open-source-appropriate_technology|Open-source-appropriate technology]] |Open-source-appropriate technology (OSAT) refers to appropriate technology designed in the same fashion as free and open-source software. OSAT refers to, on the one hand, technology designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. On the other hand, OSAT is developed in the open and licensed in such a way as to allow their designs to be used, modified and distributed freely. |} == Processes, procedures and guidelines == This section lists and reviews some of the prominent open working processes, procedures and guidelines that are practiced by stakeholders in open design digital platforms, organisations and projects. {| class="wikitable" !Concept !General Description |- |[[w:Open_standard|Open standard]] |An open standard is a standard that is publicly available and has various rights to use associated with it, and may also have various properties of how it was designed (e.g. open process). There is no single definition and interpretations vary with usage.The terms open and standard have a wide range of meanings associated with their usage. There are a number of definitions of open standards which emphasize different aspects of openness, including the openness of the resulting specification, the openness of the drafting process, and the ownership of rights in the standard. The term "standard" is sometimes restricted to technologies approved by formalized committees that are open to participation by all interested parties and operate on a consensus basis. |- |[[w:Open-source_architecture|Open-source architecture]] |Open-source architecture (OSArc) is an emerging paradigm that advocates new procedures in imagination and formation of virtual and real spaces within a universal infrastructure. Drawing from references as diverse as open-source culture, modular design, avant-garde architectural theory, science fiction, language theory, and neuro-surgery, it adopts an inclusive approach as per spatial design towards a collaborative use of design and design tools by professionals and ordinary citizen users. The umbrella term citizen-centered design harnesses the notion of open-source architecture, which in itself involves the non-building architecture of computer networks, and goes beyond it to the movement that encompass the building design professions, as a whole. |- |[[w:Commons-based_peer_production|Commons-based peer production]] |Commons-based peer production is a term coined by Harvard Law School professor Yochai Benkler. It describes a new model of socioeconomic production in which large numbers of people work cooperatively (usually over the Internet). Commons-based projects generally have less rigid hierarchical structures than those under more traditional business models. Often—but not always—commons-based projects are designed without a need for financial compensation for contributors. The term is often used interchangeably with the term social production. |- |[[w:Knowledge_commons|Knowledge commons]] |The term "knowledge commons" refers to information, data, and content that is collectively owned and managed by a community of users, particularly over the Internet. What distinguishes a knowledge commons from a commons of shared physical resources is that digital resources are non-subtractible; that is, multiple users can access the same digital resources with no effect on their quantity or quality. |- |[http://furtherfield.org/features/articles/diwo-do-it-others-%E2%80%93-no-ecology-without-social-ecology DIWO] |The term “DIWO (Do It With Others)” was first defined in 2006 on Furtherfield's collaborative projectRosalind - Upstart New Media Art Lexicon (since 2004). It extended the DIY (Do It Yourself) ethos of early (self-proclaimed) ‘net art heroes’, who taught themselves to navigate the web and develop tactics that intervened in its developing cultures.   |} == Procurement and manufacturing == This section lists and reviews some of the prominent open procurement and manufacturing companies and organisations that are related to open design. {| class="wikitable" !Organization !General Description |- |[[w:Shapeways|Shapeways]] |Shapeways is a Dutch-founded, New York-based 3D printing marketplace and service, startup company. Users design and upload 3D printable files, and Shapeways prints the objects for them or others Users can have objects printed in over 55 materials and finishes, these include: plastics, precious metals, steel and food-safe ceramics, which were discontinued and have been replaced by porcelain materials. As of June 20, 2012, Shapeways printed and sold more than one million user-created objects. |- |[[w:Tinkerforge|Tinkerforge]] |Tinkerforge is an open source hardware platform of stackable microcontroller building blocks (Bricks) that can control different modules (Bricklets). The primary communication interface of the building blocks can be extended using Master Extensions. The hardware can be controlled by external programs written in C, C++, C#, Object Pascal, Java, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Shell and VB.NET over a USB, Wifi or Ethernet connection, and running on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. This non-embedded programming approach eliminates the typical requirements and limitations (development tools, limited availability of RAM and processing power) of conventional embedded software development (such as Arduino). Tinkerforge hardware and software are both Open Source, and all files are hosted on GitHub. |- |[[w:Arduino|Arduino]] |Arduino (sold as Genuino outside of the U.S. and U.K due to a trademark dispute) is a hardware and software company, project, and user community that designs and manufactures computer hardware, open-source software, and microcontroller-based kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and control physical devices. The project is based on microcontroller board designs, produced by several vendors, using various microcontrollers. These systems provide sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that can interface to various expansion boards (termed shields) and other circuits. |} == Organizations == This section lists and reviews some of the prominent open organisations that support open source practices relative to open design. {| class="wikitable" !Organization !General Description |- |[[w:Open_Design_Alliance|Open Design Alliance]] |The Open Design Alliance is a nonprofit organization of over 1,300 members in 50 countries which develops Teigha, a software development platform used to create engineering applications including CAD. The main idea is to make core graphics technology accessible to software developers allowing them to focus on application development. |- |[[w:Open_Source_Initiative|Open Source Initiative]] |The Open Source Initiative (OSI) is an organization dedicated to promoting open-source software. The organization was founded in late February 1998 by Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond, part of a group inspired by the Netscape Communications Corporation publishing the source code for its flagship Netscape Communicator product. Later, in August 1998, the organization added a board of directors. |- |[[w:Free_Software_Foundation|Free Software Foundation]] |The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a non-profit organization founded by Richard Stallman on 4 October 1985 to support the free software movement, which promotes the universal freedom to study, distribute, create, and modify computer software, with the organization's preference for software being distributed under copyleft ("share alike") terms, such as with its own GNU General Public License. The FSF was incorporated in Massachusetts, USA, where it is also based. |} == Collectives, communities and projects == This section lists and reviews some of the prominent open collectives, communities and projects that have employed open source practices relative to open design. Some of these collectives and communities have digital repositories (open source files which are freely shared to other community users). {| class="wikitable" !Collective !General Description |- |[[w:RepRap_project|RepRap project]] |The RepRap project started as a British initiative to develop a 3D printer that can print most of its own components and be a low-cost 3D printer, but it is now made up of hundreds of collaborators world wide. RepRap is short for replicating rapid prototyper. As an open design, all of the designs produced by the project are released under a free software license, the GNU General Public License. |- |[[w:OpenCores|OpenCores]] |OpenCores is an open source hardware community developing digital open source hardware through electronic design automation, with a similar ethos to the free software movement. OpenCores hopes to eliminate redundant design work and slash development costs. |- |[[w:AXIOM_(camera)|AXIOM]] |AXIOM is an open hardware and free software digital cinema camera family of devices being developed by a DIY community around the apertus° project. |- |[[w:SatNOGS|SatNOGS]]  |SatNOGS (Satellite Networked Open Ground Station) project is a free software and open source hardware platform aimed to create a satellite ground station network. The scope of the project is to create a full stack of open technologies based on open standards, and the construction of a full ground station as a showcase of the stack. |- |[[w:Hackathon|Hackathon]] |A hackathon (also known as a hack day, hackfest or codefest) is an event in which computer programmers and others involved in software development, including graphic designers, interface designers and project managers, collaborate intensively on software projects. Occasionally, there is a hardware component as well. Hackathons typically last between a day and a week. Some hackathons are intended simply for educational or social purposes, although in many cases the goal is to create usable software. |- |[[w:Thingiverse|Thingiverse]] |Thingiverse is a website dedicated to the sharing of user-created digital design files. Providing primarily open source hardware designs licensed under the GNU General Public License or Creative Commons licenses, users choose the type of user license they wish to attach to the designs they share. 3D printers, laser cutters, milling machines and many other technologies can be used to physically create the files shared by the users on Thingiverse. |- |[[w:GitHub|Github]] |GitHub is a web-based Git repository hosting service. It offers all of the distributed version control and source code management (SCM) functionality of Git as well as adding its own features. It provides access control and several collaboration features such as bug tracking, feature requests, task management, and wikis for every project. GitHub offers both plans for private repositories, and free accounts which are commonly used to host open-source software projects. |- |[http://opendesign.foundation/ Open Design Foundation] |Started by product designer, Garth Braithwaite, this website hosts and reviews materials related to open design, which is guided by his proposed 'Open Source Design Manifesto', which is as follows: I will 1) find opportunities to design in the open, 2) share my design experiences; both the good and the bad, 3) find time for meaningful projects, 4)openly participate in design discussions, 5) work with other designers by choice, 6)improve my toolbox. |} == Intellectual property and licensing systems == This section lists and reviews some of the prominent intellectual property and licensing systems employed in open design to allow further dissemination of the open source works. {| class="wikitable" !Concept !General Description |- |[[w:GNU_General_Public_License|GNU General Public License]] |The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or GPL) is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was originally written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU Project, and grants the recipients of a computer program the rights of the Free Software Definition. The GPL is a copyleft license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free software licenses, of which the BSD licenses and the MIT License are widely used examples. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use. |- |[[w:Copyleft|Copyleft]] |Copyleft (a play on the word copyright) is the practice of offering people the right to freely distribute copies and modified versions of a work with the stipulation that the same rights be preserved in derivative works down the line. Copyleft software licenses are considered protective, as contrasted with permissive free software licenses. |- |[[w:BSD_licenses|BSD]] |BSD licenses are a family of permissive free software licenses, imposing minimal restrictions on the redistribution of covered software. This is in contrast to copyleftlicenses, which have reciprocity share-alike requirements. The original BSD license was used for its namesake, the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), a Unix-likeoperating system. |- |[[w:Creative_Commons_license|Creative Commons license]] |A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that they have created. CC provides an author flexibility and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work. |- |[[w:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works|Free Cultural Works]] |The Definition of Free Cultural Works is a definition of free content from 2006. The project evaluates and recommends compatible free content licenses which are published on the website freedomdefined.org. |- |[[w:TAPR_Open_Hardware_License|TAPR]] |The TAPR Open Hardware License is a license used in open-source hardware projects. It was created by Tucson Amateur Packet Radio (TAPR), an international amateur radio organization. Version 1.0 was published on May 25, 2007. |- |[[w:CERN_Open_Hardware_License|CERN]] |The CERN Open Hardware License (OHL or CERN OHL) is a license used in open-source hardware projects. It was created by CERN, which published version 1.0 in March 2011. Version 1.1 was published in July 2011. Version 1.2 was published in September 2013. |} == Books, articles and academic papers == {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ !Title !Type !Reference |- |[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2009.00567.x/full On the open design of tangible goods] |Paper |Raasch, C., Herstatt, C. and Balka, K., 2009. On the open design of tangible goods. ''R&d Management'', ''39''(4), pp.382-393. |- |[http://www.opendesign.org/CHIRP_Open_Design_Mfg_Equipment.pdf Open design of manufacturing equipment] |Paper |Vallance, R., Kiani, S. and Nayfeh, S., 2001, May. Open design of manufacturing equipment. In ''Proceedings of the CHIRP 1st International Conference on Agile, Reconfigurable Manufacturing,'' pp. 33-43. |- |[https://www.designsociety.org/publication/31985/open_design_and_crowdsourcing_maturity_methodology_and_business_models Open design and crowdsourcing: maturity, methodology and business models] |Paper |Howard, T.J., Achiche, S., Özkil, A. and McAloone, T.C., 2012. Open design and crowdsourcing: maturity, methodology and business models. In ''DS 70: Proceedings of DESIGN 2012, the 12th International Design Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia''. |- |[http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/31331950/Open_Design_-_a_map_of_contemporary__Open_Design_structures_and_practices.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&Expires=1474379264&Signature=pIh4Ig9Me8zh51Ve5r9dn3h2wSI%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DOpen_Design_a_map_of_contemporary_Open_D.pdf Open Design–a map of contemporary Open Design structures and practices] |Paper |Neves, H. and Mazzilli, C.D.T.S., Open Design–a map of contemporary Open Design structures and practices. |- |[https://seadnetwork.wordpress.com/white-paper-abstracts/final-white-papers/diwo-do-it-with-others-artistic-co-creation-as-a-decentralized-method-of-peer-empowerment-in-todays-multitude-diwo-do-it-with-others-artistic-co-creation-as-a-decentralized-method-of-pe/ DIWO (DO-IT-WITH-OTHERS): Artistic co-creation as a decentralized method of peer empowerment in today’s multitude] |Article |Garrett, M G., 2015. Artistic co-creation as a decentralized method of peer empowerment in today’s multitude, SEAD White Papers, MIT Press. |- |[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ze1_AwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT31&dq=open+design&ots=Ac0jqOCraB&sig=tHAB_mAIlrCnUHXHDGWiz4D9ZyE#v=onepage&q=open%20design&f=false Open design now: why design cannot remain exclusive] |Book |van Abel, B., Evers, L., Troxler, P. and Klaassen, R., 2014. ''Open design now: why design cannot remain exclusive''. BIS Publishers. |} ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas== * Could open source designs for [[Vertical farming|vertical farms]] be created? * How can artificial intelligence be utilized to promote and share open source designs? ==See also== * [[Appropriate technology designs]] [[Category:Open design]] 034em1h57snx7cw4nn28a85zz8gqikc 0 45557 2830267 2791889 2026-09-01T17:48:15Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Questions */ update heading slightly 2830267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} '''Decentralizing Wikipedia and its sister projects''' is a project to formulate a framework of how to decentralize the subsystems of the various Wikimedia projects. In practice, this project could perhaps be a fork of BOINC, GnuTella, OFFsystem or FreeNet or some synthesis of the aforementioned... or something else. ==Brainstorming== It might work something like the following. Anyone can setup tracker and/or content server (that runs as part of [[Wikiversity:Screen saver|Wikiversity Screen Saver]], some other program, or just as a service in the background). These servers and nodes track changes and where you can find articles on the network. Trackers could be large or small. They could be dedicated machines, or run in the background of peoples' electronic devices. For example, since Wikipedia is quite large, Wikipedia would probably have the most tracker servers. Wikiversity would probably have a great deal fewer. All of this could be dynamically balanced and tweaked according to need. When someone wants to view an article on cows, they basically ping a tracker server, saying in computer talk, "I want to see an article on Cows". Their machine could attempt to tell this to multiple tracker servers, and could hopefully get a rather speedy response. ===Trust=== The tracker server would say, "In order the amount of trust you can put into the integrity of the article, you can find the most up to date revision of the article on Cows on the servers x, y, z, and c". The person who requested the article on cows would then send a message off to machines x, y, z, and c". Hopefully, x would respond first, in a speedy manner and the article would pop up speedily. Presuming this goes right, the individual may decide he or she would like to edit the article. They make their changes and send them off to a few of the servers that contain the article on cows. This would then be propagated and perhaps reviewed by editors and then integrated into the best version. Maybe it could simply be integrated. Suppose someone came along and saw that it was vandalism. They could revert it as normally is done, and then that revert could be propagated. Maybe OpenID could be used to verify identities. That is an interesting challenge. How could identities be trusted on a decentralized system. OpenId? There could be separate nodes for images. == General questions == * Would a whole copy of the all the text be needed on servers? * Could images and other media be stored in a more decentralized fashion? ==See also== * [[Meta: P2P]] * [[Decentralized wikis]] ==External links== * ''[http://www.gossamer-threads.com/lists/wiki/foundation/121420 Possibility of a git-based fully distributed Wikipedia]'' * ''[http://torrentfreak.com/will-bittorrent-sites-become-obsolete-080530/ Will BitTorrent Sites Become Obsolete?]'' * [http://offsystem.sourceforge.net/ Sourceforge: OffSystem] - A distributed owner-free file system * March 2007 ''[http://www.globule.org/publi/DWECWH_webist2007.html A Decentralized Wiki Engine for Collaborative Wikipedia Hosting]'' [[Category:Sister projects]] [[Category:Wikimedia Foundation]] sr24fd8dj32al09zlnfre5hqq5z65kf 0 56290 2830258 2443045 2026-09-01T17:16:44Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Discussion questions and essay ideas */ added "What is the state of the art in humanoid robotics? How fast is the rate of change of advancement of these technologies? " 2830258 wikitext text/x-wiki Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, information engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Robotics]]</ref> {{RightTOC}} [[File:Shadow Hand Bulb large.jpg|thumb|right|Robotic hand]] == Courses == * [[Introduction to Robotics]] * [[Robotic Mechanics and Modeling]] == Learning projects and resources == * [[Artificial_Intelligence_and_Robotics_Laboratory|Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Laboratory]] * [[Anthropomorphic Robotics Project]] * [[/What is a robot?/]] * [[/Projects/]] * [[Artificial intelligence]] - Robots can use varying levels of artificial intelligence - some hardly at all, some more than less. Some robots only performs actions they are programmed to do. Some robots rely on various types of AI to engage in actions. * [[Automatic Control and Robotics]] ==Discussion questions and essay ideas== * Would building an affordable and mass-producible laundry folding robot be technologically possible? * What is the state of the art in humanoid robotics? How fast is the rate of change of advancement of these technologies? ==Readings and media== ===Wikipedia=== {{colbegin|4}} * [[Wikipedia:Robotics|Robotics]] * [[w:Mobile industrial robots|Mobile industrial robots]] * [[w:Articulated soft robotics|Articulated soft robotics]] * [[w:Robot locomotion|Robot locomotion]] * [[w:Motion planning|Motion planning]] * [[w:Robot kinematics|Robot kinematics]] * [[w:Mobile robot|Mobile robot]] * [[w:Cloud robotics|Cloud robotics]] * [[w:Autonomous robot|Autonomous robot]] * [[w:Workplace robotics safety|Workplace robotics safety]] * [[w:Soft robotics|Soft robotics]] * [[w:Cobot|Cobot]] * [[w:Template:Robotics|Template:Robotics]] * [[w:Open-source robotics|Open-source robotics]] * [[w:Robotics suite|Robotics suite]] * [[w:Comparison of domestic robots|Comparison of domestic robots]] * [[w:Robot tax|Robot tax]] * [[w:Industrial robot|Industrial robot]] * [[w:Cartesian coordinate robot|Cartesian coordinate robot]] * [[w:Robotic arm|Robotic arm]] * [[w:Articulated robot|Articulated robot]] * [[w:Robotics simulator|Robotics simulator]] * [[w:Robotics|Robotics]] * [[w:Human–robot interaction|Human–robot interaction]] * [[w:Domestic robot|Domestic robot]] * [[w:Personal robot|Personal robot]] {{colend}} ===External=== * [http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=65CC0384A1798ADF Stanford: Introduction To Robotics Lectures on YouTube] * [http://wiki.roboteducation.org/Main_Page Institute for Personal Robots in Education Wiki] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jy3zjXK4ao4 Google Just Put an A.I. Brain in a Robot (Research Breakthrough)] (video) == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Robotics| ]] [[Category:Automation]] 78teubvdispbddxlv416bcd96jwpcww 2 67933 2830215 336129 2026-09-01T15:12:44Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830215 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Lecture Notes for 9/12/08== '''In compact notation:''' <br /> :<big>[k_ij]</big>_6x6<big>{d_j}</big>_6x1 = <big>{F_i}</big>_6x1 ::(more generally, the matrices are nxn) <big><math>\sum_{j=1}^{6}{ K_{ij}d_j }\! = F_i</math></big>, i = 1, 2, 3, ...., 6 {{clear}} '''The three matrices used are shown below: ''' :<big><u>K</u>_nxn = [K_ij]_nxn = global stiffness matrix </big> :<big><u>d</u>_nxn = {d_j}_nxn = global displacement matrix </big> :<big><u>F</u>_nxn = {F_i}_nxn = global force matrix </big> {{clear}} '''Recall''' the element force-displacement relation :<u>k</u>^(e)_4x4<u>d</u>^(e)_4x1=<u>f</u>^(e)_4x1 ::<u>k</u>_n4x4 = [k_ij^(e)] = element stiffness matrix ::<u>d</u>_nxn = {d_j^(e)} = element displacement matrix ::<u>F</u>_nxn = {f_i^(e)} = elementforce matrix<nowiki></nowiki> {{clear}} ===How to go from the element matrices (stiffness, displacement, and force matrices) to the global matrices=== {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%" |- ! '''The Assembly Process''' |- | align=left| *'''1) '''First, take a look at the Global level Free body diagram<br /> [[Image:HW2TrussGlobalFBD.jpg|frame|left|Global Free Body Diagram - {d₁,d₂,...,d₆}]] {{clear}} *'''2) '''Also, take a look at the free body diagrams of element 1 and 2. <br /> [[Image:TrussBarElem1.jpg|frame|left|Bar Element 1 - {d₁⁽¹⁾, d₂⁽¹⁾, d₃⁽¹⁾, d₄⁽¹⁾}]] [[Image:TrussBarElem2.jpg|frame|none|Bar Element 2 - {d₁⁽²⁾, d₂⁽²⁾, d₃⁽²⁾, d₄⁽²⁾} ]] {{clear}} *'''3) '''Compare the displacements between the global picture and the two element pictures for each global node. You will notice that some of the displacements are equal. :'''Global Node 1''' ::d₁ = d₁^{(1)←(element 1)} ::d₂ = d₂⁽¹⁾ <br /> ::^{↑(1st global degree of freedom)} :'''Global Node 2''' ::d₃ = d₃⁽¹⁾ = d₁⁽²⁾ <br /> ::d₄ = d₂⁽¹⁾ = d₂⁽²⁾ :'''Global Node 3''' ::d₅ = d₃⁽²⁾ ::d₆ = d₄⁽²⁾ |} jhke5hvt41asxddtmbvfo58o1ge7dfj 0 71419 2830310 2782545 2026-09-01T23:30:48Z Michael Ten 654933 fix formatting 2830310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{uncategorized}} <b>HOW ARE GRADUATION HOODINGS DIFFERENT FROM GRADUATION CEREMONIES?</B> The Hooding Ceremony is an event whereby recognition is given for those graduating with master or doctoral degrees. Candidates for the hooding ceremony will be full recipients of their masters or doctorates at the graduation ceremonies. The Hooding Ceremony is symbolic of passing the guard from one generation to the next generation. During the ceremony, a candidate presents themselves to their faculty advisor or other authorized member of the faculty with their hood placed over their left arm. The candidate hands the hood to the adviser, turns away from the adviser (often to face the crowd for photos) while the adviser places the hood over the head of the graduate, signifying his or her success in completing the graduate program. The ceremony is similar to a graduation in that faculty and students are dressed in academic attire. The Hooding Ceremony is in addition to and does not replace the Graduation Exercises. ==Video References of Graduation Hoodings== * [http://www.articlesbase.com/education-articles/how-to-wear-a-graduation-hood-17934.html How to wear a Graduation Hood?] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5CjXaUPxs4 Graduation HT: Hooding] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jS24Rbc5w6Y Graduation Hooding - Capella University] * [http://www.graduationsource.com/hoods.php Academic Hoods] * [http://www.tgs.northwestern.edu/studentsvcs/graduation/hooding/ HOODING CEREMONIES] * [http://usfweb2.usf.edu/commencement/information.asp General Commencement Information] * [http://registrar.tennessee.edu/graduation/commencement/spring07_cer.shtml Kickoff to Commencement] * [http://www.cs.utah.edu/~hal/photos_grad.html Graduation/Hooding Photos Hal Daumé III] * [http://searchwarp.com/swa46562.htm How to Wear a Graduation Hood?] * [http://www.commencement.ku.edu/2008/grads.shtml Graduation Hooding at KU] * [http://www.gdnet.ucla.edu/gasaa/hooding/commencement.htm Doctoral Hooding Ceremony - Commencement 2008] * [http://www.pdx.edu/education/hooding.html Graduate School of Education] * [http://capsandgown.com/doctoral.html Caps and Gowns] * [http://store.graduationgown.com/vip-master-s-hoods-graduation-regalia.html History of Graduation and Hooding ] * [http://main.uab.edu/Sites/gradschool/students/current/graduation/7327/ UAB Graduate School Doctoral Hooding and Commencement Ceremonies] * [http://vids.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=vids.individual&videoid=45479545 Graduation Hooding Ceremony] * [http://www.law.uchicago.edu/students/graduation_information.html University of Chicago Law School - Graduation Information] * [http://www.capsandgownsnow.com/ Caps and Gowns Information] 3j9hqnvq9e4bo42h2ljhvro04l3x2sn 0 97171 2830224 2190897 2026-09-01T15:20:47Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints - Please ignore the notification this edit generated. 2830224 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="margin:0em 0em 1em 0em; width:100%" | colspan="1" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; border:10px solid #CCCCCC; background-color: #faecc8;{{Text color default}};" | <div style="border-bottom:10px solid :#9F8562; background-color:#CC0033;{{Text color default}}; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em; font-size:150%; font-weight:bold;">{{center top}} '''The Popular Apocalyptic Genre and Film in Post-modern Cinema:'''{{center bottom}}<br>''The Book of Eli'' </div> <div style="padding:2em 5em 0em 3em;"> <!--Note: Top, right, bottom, left --> [[Image:Book-of-eli2.jpg|200px|thumb|<small> '''{{'}}The Book of Eli Movie Marquee{{'}}'''</small>]] ==Genre Introduction== *Film might be the best medium to present creative images in which the surreal and bizarre appear as realism. Apocalyptic themes have long been a part of popular culture in the west and used to inform it's audiences through literature, art, music, as well as cinema. One of the difficulties in studying and comparing various apocalyptic media is the larger question of the definition of apocalyptic. This is compounded when attempting to make comparisons across cultures. The word apocalyptic in contemporary times is defined as "pertaining to the 'Revelation of St. John' in the New Testament," from Greek apokalyptikos, from apokalyptein. Meaning "pertaining to the imminent end of the world" evolved by 1880s <ref>Dictionary.com</ref> In 1979, the Apocalypse Group of the Society of Biblical Literature produced the following description of the genre of apocalypse, relating specifically to ancient apocalyptic writings: “Apocalypse is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by another worldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial, insofar as it involves another, supernatural world” <ref>Collins 9</ref> The biblical books of Daniel, entail the ascension of the son of man upon clouds to the earth, Ezekiel's vision of a craft from heaven using present day dialect, and John's Revelations, <ref>Desai, Brief critical essay</ref> which is an entire book dedicated to the end times, are the most well-known expressions of apocalyptic literature. By catagorizing or developing guidelines for many of societies complex films/themes, we come to understand the difference in our contemporary culture as opposed to traditional sacred views. ==Characteristics== *Dreams and or visions that reveal events associated with the end of the world. *Battles between good and evil. *Ultimate destruction or punishment of evil. *An ushering in of "God's" wisdom resulting in an overwhelming sense of elevation to a state of virtue. *Divine intervention or transformation allows and sanctifies the end history of the drama to be meaningful. ==Interpretation== *The credibility of the message, interpretive realist sci-fi, hinges on the authority of the writer. The intervention or transformation of the prophet as the one who delivers the divine word to the believers, the ones who correctly decode the symbolic language. In modern Christian apocalyptic literature, prophecy itself is thought of as finished; only interpretation remains. Yet the authority of the writer is still central. It is also important to note the interpretive method used in modern apocalyptic writings. The claim is that viewers/readers interpret the Bible ''literally.'' This also helps explain the realism of the modern apocalyptic form. ''Literal'' interpretations as one would expect should lead to realistic depictions of our world <ref>Wesley J. Bergen</ref> ==Summary of ''The Book of Eli''== *The contemporary film, ''The Book of Eli'' directed by Albert and Allen Hughes, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1037705/ The Internet Movie Database] focuses on the protagonist and a violent thirty year quest through desert like wastelands of a cataclysmic war ravaged earth. His name is Eli, and he carries a unique book. It is no coincidence that his name (Elijah) is the same as that of one of the Old Testament prophets. In the movie, Eli has a dream sent to him from God that tells him where to find the last surviving copy of the Bible. Once found, he is instructed to "take it West." He is also promised that no harm shall befall him while he is on this quest. This is very similar to the Biblical prophet Elijah. *Interesting to note- The Old Testament includes the story of Elijah, in Kings 1 19:1 <ref>The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha</ref> However, all of the Major Prophets have their own books. The ''Book of Elijah'' is a middle eastern text that was discovered in 1743, and is considered an Apocryphal book. [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/sefer_elijah.htm University of Connecticut] *Elijah also spends many months wandering the deserts of the Middle East on God's mission, and to evade capture by the kings whom he has angered with his prophecies. There are other similarities. Both Eli and Elijah's journeys end at the water's edge. Eli reaches the city of San Francisco, while Elijah's journey ended at the edge of the river Jordan. Eli, after orally transmitting the Bible that he has memorized after 30 years of reading it, dies from a gunshot wound to his stomach, while Elijah, like Enoch, is taken up to heaven in a fiery chariot. Eli also becomes immortal due to the fact that the people living in San Francisco print the Bible in multiple copies to be handed out amongst the survivors of the nuclear war. The second striking similarity is that both Eli and Elijah be-friend acolytes (Eli, Solara the daughter of the blind woman, Claudia lover of the man who took the Bible from him, and Elijah, Elisha who inherits his robe and powers after Elijah is taken up to heaven) who eventually carry on their missions. *In ''The Book of Eli'' there are two very interesting symbolic twists; the first, the Bible that Eli finds is written in Braille, the language of the blind. After the nuclear (bright blinding lights) war, much of the population goes blind. Eli, during the thirty years he has possession of the Bible, has learned Braille, yet he never loses his sight. When the Bible is taken from him, the only person who can read it, the blind mother of the acolyte following Eli, refuses to do so for the antagonist of the film (who is representative of the kings of the Old Testament who oppose Elijah), leaving him and his empire to crumble, just as Elijah left the kings in the Bible to fall after winning a competition against their Canaanite gods. *The other symbolic twist is at the very end of the film. Eli, who is very ill from sepsis and dying, lays next to the transcriber on a cushioned mat, dressed all in white much like a Muslim Imam as he passes on the oral tradition of the Bible, much as Muhammad received the Quran orally from Gabriel, and then before dying orally recites it for his wife to transcribe the Quran into words. *Also, as Eli's acolyte stands at his grave, the camera shows a close up of a white flower with a yellow center that adorns Eli's grave. This flower can be found in many paintings and frescos done by artists of the Islamic Mughal Empire of India, the most powerful and successful of all Muslim empires. The movie, with these two scenes, attempts to merge the beliefs of Islam and Judeo-Christianity with symbology. Muslims believe that all three books; the Quran, the Old and New Testament, derive from one great Holy book in Heaven. *A distinction must be made here. Films and books dealing with end of the world scenarios fall into two categories; man-made secular and non-secular containing religious themes or symbology. Even though the premise of the movie is a man-made secular "end of the world" scenario, all of these symbols; Eli's name, the acolyte, the protagonist ruler of the town, the last remaining Bible as the focal "Holy Grail," and the Islamic imagery, combine to place the film in the apocalyptic genre. *The film ends with Eli's acolyte walking back to the east to continue Eli's work as a prophet, possibly with a copy of the newly printed Bible, just as Elisha, the acolyte of Elijah, became a prophet for Yahweh. At the heart of this film is the message that, the "word" (good news, New Testament) passed down through oral tradition is just as or more important than the written word. It is a film that takes us to the future to show us our religious connections with the ancient past, bringing the message of God full circle, using language and visual symbology to accomplish this. It contains both secular and non-secular themes. However, the religious theme is the over-riding message, which places the film in the literature Apocalyptic genre. ==Suggested Apocalyptic Films== *The Omega Code, 1999 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0203408/] *Megiddo, 2001 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0203408/] *The Left Behind Series, 2000, 2005 [http://www.leftbehind.com/01_products/browse.asp?section=Books] ==Secular Definitions (Quick View)== *Exclusions of the supernatural as a means of action for destruction. *Inclusion of a variety of other means, i.e., aliens, disease, chance or humanity itself. ==Suggested Secular Films== *''The Matrix'', 1999 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/] *''I Am Legend'', 2007 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0480249/] *''Sunshine'', 2007 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0448134/] *''12 Monkeys'', 1995 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114746/] *''Waterworld'', 1995 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114898/] The film ''Waterworld'', is a secular apocalyptic film. Global warming is responsible for a world wide portrayal of destruction to dry land that has been completely replaced by ocean. Human activity created the problem, but human activity also endures to solve the problem. The search for a paradise is realized and a rediscovery of a new earth is made. This film contains the elements of the traditional apocalypse but humanity is labeled as sacred instead of any divine intervention. ==Extras== Official Movie Website, including Trailer [http://thebookofeli.warnerbros.com/dvd/index.html] Theme song for ''The Book of Eli'' [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qutQhgqGin8] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== Bergin, Wesley J. "The New Apocalyptic: Modern American Apocalyptic Fiction and its Ancient and Modern Cousins." ''Wichita State University Journal of Religion and Popular Culture.'' 20: 2008. Collins, John J. “Introduction: Towards the Morphology of a Genre.” ''Semeia'' 14: 1-20. 1979. Desai, Jenny. "The End of the World as we Know it: Apostles Avow." ''Science & Spirit'' 18.1 (2007): 65. Academic OneFile. Web. 30 June 2010 {{Template:tertiary education}}{{Template:literature}}{{Template:psychology}}{{Template:religion}}{{Template:english}} ````--[[User:Candyangel43|Candyangel43]] </div> |} 0t0harxed2g0uhjc5o0ou8r74mxzkdp 0 98306 2830308 2588800 2026-09-01T23:26:18Z Michael Ten 654933 fixed spacing some. 2830308 wikitext text/x-wiki See [http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/e/sac/meem/index.php/meem/article/viewFile/78/70 Ecolig - an E-Learning Protocol], by Paulo V. O. Miguel, Samira M. Ismail, and Gilmar Barreto. A Brazilian word that means "environment" and "connection". ''ECOLIG'' is a [[communication protocol]] that lies at the study of both [[communication]] and [[signification]] between animals and the [[environment]] through electronic world. Supported by concepts as [[Umwelt]] from Uexküll theorised that organisms can have different "Umwelten", even though they share the same environment. The [[human perception]] as part of the [[cognition]] process can use the third wave of [[Human-Computer Interface]]. The human mind is capable of absorbing elements of the world and integrate it into awareness of Being, as it does to drive a car, use a sword, write with a pen or play an instrument, once it becomes an ability it turns a kind of Being part as well. Then we should be using the characteristics of ionic charge, responsible for communication between some biological systems, to develop [[electrical interfaces]] that respond to [[stimuli]] and can be perceived directly from [[biological signals]], such as neural interfaces through [[BCI]] (Brain-Computer Interface), for example (Wolpav, 2000). The emotion has been studied in diverse areas such as [[psychology]], [[neurology]], [[medicine]], and [[sociology]]. So many scientists are studding how emotion processes are part of cognition. There is a generative as well as expressive relationship between movement and emotion (Sheets-Johnstone, 1999). As well as, there is a relationship between some movements and emotion processes and vice-versa. Otherwise, emotions cannot be handled as hard-wired processes in our brains, but changeable and interesting regulating processes for our social development ([[Hook]] 2008). Emotion is a social and dynamic communication mechanism. We learn how and when certain emotions are appropriate, and we learn the appropriate expressions of emotions for different cultures, contexts, and situations. The way we make sense of emotions is a combination of some body experience and how emotions arise, as well as they are expressed in some specific situations of interaction with others, most of the time supported by cultural practices that we have learned. Those emotional signals can be acquired from different origins in the human body. Some [[BCI]] devices can segregate them in three categories: the affective, expressive and cognitive ones. The expressive category can monitor ionic charges to move some specific muscle, and it can be used to interact with learning systems ==Discussion== An important part of a reference model for a learning object design is the [[HCI]] (Human Computer Interface), it can be the way used to transfer some knowledge. Since the knowledge exchange may be considered an evolution of information exchange model, this idea depends on the possibility to create a standard to codify the knowledge building. The design of new users interface can be necessary to attend the requirements. The communication between human and machine cannot be limited to the conscious communication, since the non-conscious communication play a much more significant role. Those interfaces improve the being interaction with the world supporting a semiotic protocol. This kind of protocol can speed up the information transfer between humans and electronic devices, and vice versa. As a result of a learning structure based on [[Hybrid Neural Networks]], it can collect and share standard information in order to reproduce and transmit the path of knowledge. So, learn how to share the internal space can be a major challenge for a development of semiotic processes looking for an efficient information exchange between humans and electronic devices in each layer of this reference model structure. ==External links== *[http://web.archive.org/web/20060221134707/http://www.ut.ee/SOSE/deely.htm Umwelt] by [[John Deely]] *[http://www.zbi.ee/~kalevi/jesphohp.htm Umwelt and semiosphere] by [[Kalevi Kull]] *[http://www.ento.vt.edu/~sharov/biosem/txt/umwelt.html Pragmatism and Umwelt-theory] by Alexei Sharov == References == Albus, James S. – “Outline for a Theory of Intelligence” - IEEE Transactions on System, Man, Cybernetics - Vol 21 - No.3 - May/June 1991 - pp. 473 - 481. Bagnasco, A.; Chirico, M. & Scapolla,A.M. (2002). “XML Technologies to Design Didactical Distributed Measurement Laboratories”, DIBE, University of Genova, Italy. IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement, Technology Conference, Anchorage, AK USA, 21-23-May, 2002. 0-7803-7218-2/02 © 2002 IEEE. Boehner, K.; DePaula, R.; Dourish, P. & Sengers, P., “How Emotion Is Made and Measured,” Int’l J. Human-Computer Studies, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 275-291, 2007. Cincotti, Febo; Mattia, Donatella; Aloise, Fabio; Bufalari, Simona; Schalk, Gerwin; Oriolo, Giuseppe; Cherubini, Andrea; Marcian, Maria Grazia & Babiloni, Fabio –“ Non-invasive brain–computer interface system: Towards its application as assistive technology”, Brain Research Bulletin 75 (2008) 796–803 Downes, Stephen. -“Learning Objects: Resources for Distance Education Worldwide”. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2001. Gudwin, Ricardo – “Semiônica: Uma Proposta de Contribuição à Semiótica Computacional” – Tese de Livre-Docência, DCA-FEEC-UNICAMP, May, 2002. Heidegger, Martin – “Sein und Zeit” - Translated as Being and Time by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978). Hook, Kristina – “Knowing, Communicating, and Experiencing through Body and Emotion” – IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 4, October-December 2008 Kanev, F.Y., Makenova N.A., & Nosov, G.V.. (2004). “A Series of Virtual Laboratory Exercises for The Course of Theoretical Fundamentals of Electroengineering”. Intitute of Atmospheric Optics. 0-7803-8383-4/04 © 2004 IEEE. Kull, Kalevi. On Semiosis, Umwelt, and Semiosphere (1998). ''Semiotica'', Vol. 120(3/4), pp. 299-310. Larkin, J. H., & Herbert A. S. (1987). “Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words”. Cognitive Science 11, 65-99, 1987, Carnegie Mellon University. http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/iacs/january/larkin.pdf , Last visit 28-Nov-2007, 19:45. Lawenda, M.; Meyer, N.; Okon, M.; Rajtar, T.; Stoklosa, D.; Kaliszan, D. & Poznan, M. S.. (2004). “Dynamic Measurement Scenarios in the Virtual Laboratory System”. Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center, Supercomputing Department, Nozkowskiego 10, 61-704 Poznan, Poland. Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM International Workshop on GRID Computing (GRID’04). 1550-551/04 © 2004 , Computer Society. Menéndez, L. M.; Salaverría, A.; Mandado, E. & Dacosta, J. G.. (2006). “Virtual Electronics Laboratory: A New Tool to Improve Industrial Electronics Learning”. Tecnicas Formativas S.L. C/ San Salvador 4-Bajo36204 Vigo. Pontevedra, Spain. 1-4244-0136-4/06 © 2006 IEEE. Meystel, Alex M. – “Semiotic Modeling and Situation Analysis: An Introduction” - Bala Cynwyd, AdRem Inc. - 1995. Miguel, Paulo V. O. ; Barreto, Gilmar; - “Um Laboratório Virtual de Signos Semióticos”. COBENGE - Congresso Brasileiro de Educação em Engenharia. Associação Brasileira de Educação em Engenharia - ABENGE, São Paulo - Brasil, Setembro 2008. Morris, Charles W. – “Writings on the General Theory of Signs” - The Hague: Mouton - 1971. Nöth,Winfried. - “Panorama da Semiótica de Platão a Peirce”. Annablume Editora, 1995. Nöth,Winfried. - “A Semiótica no Século XX”. Annablume Editora, 1996. Nöth, Winifried – “De Platão a Peirce” - 2ª edição revisada, 1998. Peirce, Charles S. – “Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce” - 1960. Poppel, B.P.V.; Benson, M.J.; Boettner, D.D. & Ozer, A. A. (2004). “Virtual Laboratory Development for Undergraduate Engineering Courses”. Departmentof Civil and Mechanical Engineering, United States Military Academy, West Point, New York 10996 USA. 0-7803-8596-9/04 © 2004 IEEE . Pospelov, Dmitriy A. – “Situational Control: Theory and Practice” – Nauka Publishers - Moscow - 1986 - tradução não publicada do original em russo - 1991. Sheets-Johnstone, M. - “Emotion and Movement: A Beginning Empirical-Phenomenological Analysis of Their Relationship,” J. Consciousness Studies, vol. 6, nos. 11-12, pp. 259-277, 1999. Wolpaw, Jonathan R; Birbaumer, Niels; Heetderks, Willian J.; McFarland, Dennis J.; Peckham, Hunter; Schalk, Gerwin; Donchin, Emanuel; Quatrano, Louis A.; Robinson, Charles J.; Vaughan, Theresa M. – “Brain–computer interface technology: a review of the first international meeting” - IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8 (2000) 161–163. Xaoyan, C.; Xiaodong, Z. & Xi, C.. (2005). “A Virtual Laboratory for Electrical and Electronics Teaching”. School of Automation, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, 100876 China, 0-7803-9128-4/05 © 2005 IEEE. [[Category:Human–computer interaction]] [[Category:Semiotics]] [[Category:Neuroethology Concepts]] [[br:Ecolig]] [[ch:生態鏈接]] [[et:ökolingid]] 5qokiap3unk71c2lzw9zyj1woito1mg 2830309 2830308 2026-09-01T23:28:42Z Michael Ten 654933 /* References */ update formatting 2830309 wikitext text/x-wiki See [http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/e/sac/meem/index.php/meem/article/viewFile/78/70 Ecolig - an E-Learning Protocol], by Paulo V. O. Miguel, Samira M. Ismail, and Gilmar Barreto. A Brazilian word that means "environment" and "connection". ''ECOLIG'' is a [[communication protocol]] that lies at the study of both [[communication]] and [[signification]] between animals and the [[environment]] through electronic world. Supported by concepts as [[Umwelt]] from Uexküll theorised that organisms can have different "Umwelten", even though they share the same environment. The [[human perception]] as part of the [[cognition]] process can use the third wave of [[Human-Computer Interface]]. The human mind is capable of absorbing elements of the world and integrate it into awareness of Being, as it does to drive a car, use a sword, write with a pen or play an instrument, once it becomes an ability it turns a kind of Being part as well. Then we should be using the characteristics of ionic charge, responsible for communication between some biological systems, to develop [[electrical interfaces]] that respond to [[stimuli]] and can be perceived directly from [[biological signals]], such as neural interfaces through [[BCI]] (Brain-Computer Interface), for example (Wolpav, 2000). The emotion has been studied in diverse areas such as [[psychology]], [[neurology]], [[medicine]], and [[sociology]]. So many scientists are studding how emotion processes are part of cognition. There is a generative as well as expressive relationship between movement and emotion (Sheets-Johnstone, 1999). As well as, there is a relationship between some movements and emotion processes and vice-versa. Otherwise, emotions cannot be handled as hard-wired processes in our brains, but changeable and interesting regulating processes for our social development ([[Hook]] 2008). Emotion is a social and dynamic communication mechanism. We learn how and when certain emotions are appropriate, and we learn the appropriate expressions of emotions for different cultures, contexts, and situations. The way we make sense of emotions is a combination of some body experience and how emotions arise, as well as they are expressed in some specific situations of interaction with others, most of the time supported by cultural practices that we have learned. Those emotional signals can be acquired from different origins in the human body. Some [[BCI]] devices can segregate them in three categories: the affective, expressive and cognitive ones. The expressive category can monitor ionic charges to move some specific muscle, and it can be used to interact with learning systems ==Discussion== An important part of a reference model for a learning object design is the [[HCI]] (Human Computer Interface), it can be the way used to transfer some knowledge. Since the knowledge exchange may be considered an evolution of information exchange model, this idea depends on the possibility to create a standard to codify the knowledge building. The design of new users interface can be necessary to attend the requirements. The communication between human and machine cannot be limited to the conscious communication, since the non-conscious communication play a much more significant role. Those interfaces improve the being interaction with the world supporting a semiotic protocol. This kind of protocol can speed up the information transfer between humans and electronic devices, and vice versa. As a result of a learning structure based on [[Hybrid Neural Networks]], it can collect and share standard information in order to reproduce and transmit the path of knowledge. So, learn how to share the internal space can be a major challenge for a development of semiotic processes looking for an efficient information exchange between humans and electronic devices in each layer of this reference model structure. ==External links== *[http://web.archive.org/web/20060221134707/http://www.ut.ee/SOSE/deely.htm Umwelt] by [[John Deely]] *[http://www.zbi.ee/~kalevi/jesphohp.htm Umwelt and semiosphere] by [[Kalevi Kull]] *[http://www.ento.vt.edu/~sharov/biosem/txt/umwelt.html Pragmatism and Umwelt-theory] by Alexei Sharov == References == * Albus, James S. – “Outline for a Theory of Intelligence” - IEEE Transactions on System, Man, Cybernetics - Vol 21 - No.3 - May/June 1991 - pp. 473 - 481. * Bagnasco, A.; Chirico, M. & Scapolla,A.M. (2002). “XML Technologies to Design Didactical Distributed Measurement Laboratories”, DIBE, University of Genova, Italy. IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement, Technology Conference, Anchorage, AK USA, 21-23-May, 2002. 0-7803-7218-2/02 © 2002 IEEE. * Boehner, K.; DePaula, R.; Dourish, P. & Sengers, P., “How Emotion Is Made and Measured,” Int’l J. Human-Computer Studies, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 275-291, 2007. * Cincotti, Febo; Mattia, Donatella; Aloise, Fabio; Bufalari, Simona; Schalk, Gerwin; Oriolo, Giuseppe; Cherubini, Andrea; Marcian, Maria Grazia & Babiloni, Fabio –“ Non-invasive brain–computer interface system: Towards its application as assistive technology”, Brain Research Bulletin 75 (2008) 796–803 * Downes, Stephen. -“Learning Objects: Resources for Distance Education Worldwide”. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2001. * Gudwin, Ricardo – “Semiônica: Uma Proposta de Contribuição à Semiótica Computacional” – Tese de Livre-Docência, DCA-FEEC-UNICAMP, May, 2002. * Heidegger, Martin – “Sein und Zeit” - Translated as Being and Time by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978). * Hook, Kristina – “Knowing, Communicating, and Experiencing through Body and Emotion” – IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 4, October-December 2008 * Kanev, F.Y., Makenova N.A., & Nosov, G.V.. (2004). “A Series of Virtual Laboratory Exercises for The Course of Theoretical Fundamentals of Electroengineering”. Intitute of Atmospheric Optics. 0-7803-8383-4/04 © 2004 IEEE. * Kull, Kalevi. On Semiosis, Umwelt, and Semiosphere (1998). ''Semiotica'', Vol. 120(3/4), pp. 299-310. * Larkin, J. H., & Herbert A. S. (1987). “Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words”. Cognitive Science 11, 65-99, 1987, Carnegie Mellon University. http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/iacs/january/larkin.pdf , Last visit 28-Nov-2007, 19:45. * Lawenda, M.; Meyer, N.; Okon, M.; Rajtar, T.; Stoklosa, D.; Kaliszan, D. & Poznan, M. S.. (2004). “Dynamic Measurement Scenarios in the Virtual Laboratory System”. Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center, Supercomputing Department, Nozkowskiego 10, 61-704 Poznan, Poland. Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM International Workshop on GRID Computing (GRID’04). 1550-551/04 © 2004 , Computer Society. * Menéndez, L. M.; Salaverría, A.; Mandado, E. & Dacosta, J. G.. (2006). “Virtual Electronics Laboratory: A New Tool to Improve Industrial Electronics Learning”. Tecnicas Formativas S.L. C/ San Salvador 4-Bajo36204 Vigo. Pontevedra, Spain. 1-4244-0136-4/06 © 2006 IEEE. * Meystel, Alex M. – “Semiotic Modeling and Situation Analysis: An Introduction” - Bala Cynwyd, AdRem Inc. - 1995. * Miguel, Paulo V. O. ; Barreto, Gilmar; - “Um Laboratório Virtual de Signos Semióticos”. COBENGE - Congresso Brasileiro de Educação em Engenharia. Associação Brasileira de Educação em Engenharia - ABENGE, São Paulo - Brasil, Setembro 2008. * Morris, Charles W. – “Writings on the General Theory of Signs” - The Hague: Mouton - 1971. * Nöth,Winfried. - “Panorama da Semiótica de Platão a Peirce”. Annablume Editora, 1995. * Nöth,Winfried. - “A Semiótica no Século XX”. Annablume Editora, 1996. * Nöth, Winifried – “De Platão a Peirce” - 2ª edição revisada, 1998. * Peirce, Charles S. – “Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce” - 1960. * Poppel, B.P.V.; Benson, M.J.; Boettner, D.D. & Ozer, A. A. (2004). “Virtual Laboratory Development for Undergraduate Engineering Courses”. Departmentof Civil and Mechanical Engineering, United States Military Academy, West Point, New York 10996 USA. 0-7803-8596-9/04 © 2004 IEEE . * Pospelov, Dmitriy A. – “Situational Control: Theory and Practice” – Nauka Publishers - Moscow - 1986 - tradução não publicada do original em russo - 1991. * Sheets-Johnstone, M. - “Emotion and Movement: A Beginning Empirical-Phenomenological Analysis of Their Relationship,” J. Consciousness Studies, vol. 6, nos. 11-12, pp. 259-277, 1999. * Wolpaw, Jonathan R; Birbaumer, Niels; Heetderks, Willian J.; McFarland, Dennis J.; Peckham, Hunter; Schalk, Gerwin; Donchin, Emanuel; Quatrano, Louis A.; Robinson, Charles J.; Vaughan, Theresa M. – “Brain–computer interface technology: a review of the first international meeting” - IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8 (2000) 161–163. * Xaoyan, C.; Xiaodong, Z. & Xi, C.. (2005). “A Virtual Laboratory for Electrical and Electronics Teaching”. School of Automation, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, 100876 China, 0-7803-9128-4/05 © 2005 IEEE. [[Category:Human–computer interaction]] [[Category:Semiotics]] [[Category:Neuroethology Concepts]] [[br:Ecolig]] [[ch:生態鏈接]] [[et:ökolingid]] l0xewdtn0hsty1mxsrimu8yokkgw15n 0 102326 2830376 2768709 2026-09-02T04:15:17Z Michael Ten 654933 fixed headings some 2830376 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Childhood obesity'''== Heart disease. Type II diabetes. Arthritis. Asthma. Cancer. These diseases have traditionally been associated with the adult population, but they have overwhelmingly been appearing in the childhood population thanks to childhood obesity (MICA 2010). Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more. Body mass index is measured on a height-to-weight scale. Therefore, an individual who is 5’9 and weighs 180 pounds will have a higher BMI than an individual who is 6’0 and weights 180 pounds. BMI does not take into account lean tissue, such as in athletes, however children normally are unaffected by this flaw in calculation since they typically do not have a great amount of lean tissue. =='''Statistics'''== In the past decade, obesity in children has risen dramatically. The percentage of overweight children in the United States is growing at an alarming rate, with 1 out of 3 kids now considered overweight or obese (CDC). Prevalence of obese middle school children has increased 75% in the last five years, and the prevalence of obese high school students has increased by 64% during the same time period (MICA 2010). The United States has seen a huge increase in the past five decades in obesity among all of its citizens. The rate of overweight men and women has doubled from the 1950’s to the 1990’s, while the level of obesity has increased more than threefold in the same time span. In 2008, more than one third of US children and adolescents aged 6–19 were overweight or obese (CDC). When looking at the United States’ children specifically, the rates are astonishing. 9.5% of children under the age of two are obese. That rate rises to 11.9% in the 2-9 year old age group (Ogden et al 2009). The rate is even for the children of Missouri. 14% of children are considered obese in Missouri (The Obesity Epidemic and Missouri Students 2009). Clay County is where the numbers get scary. Overall, the level of obesity for children is lower in Clay County than the rate for Missouri as a whole. 10.8% of 2-5 year olds and 10.2% of 5-20 year olds have a body mass index in the obese range (Crigler 2003). The level of children who are overweight for the same age ranges are significantly higher. 17.0% of 2-5 year olds and 19.6% of 5-20 year olds are overweight (Crigler 2003). These are the highest rates for the entire Kansas City area. All of these statistics are the driving force behind the Clay60 program of the Clay County Public Health Center. =='''Exercise'''= The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have proclaimed that two modifiable factors that lead to obesity are diet and exercise (2010). The CDC’s following exercise requirements for children will combat obesity and lead to a higher overall quality of life: • Children 6-17 should take part in aerobic activity for 60 or more minutes every day • Children 6-17 should take part in muscle strengthening exercises (gymnastics, push-ups, etc) three days per week as a part of the 60 or more minutes • Children 6-17 should take part in bone strengthening exercises (jumping rope, running, etc) three days per week as part of the 60 or more minutes Following these guidelines every day will help our children stay fit, and will actively combat obesity and the diseases associated with the debilitating condition. As a community, we need to support the physical education curriculum within Missouri’s school districts, and we absolutely must turn the T.V. off and force our kids to be active. Children who exercise build more lean tissue (muscle), have lower blood sugar levels, and have a lower risk for heart disease and diabetes than sedentary children. Besides the immediate health benefits associated with exercising, children who are fit enjoy a greater social experience, have more friends, and are happier overall more than obese children (CDC 2010). The slogan “Clay 60” is just a reminder that Clay County residents should make sure their children are playing and exercising for 60 minutes every single day so they can lead longer, healthier, and happier lives! =='''Nutrition'''== In order to combat the change in eating habits, The United States Department of Agriculture has set forth guidelines for the recommended daily servings with the food guide pyramid as well as other tips for eating a healthy balanced diet. The general recommendations for kids are for an 1800 calorie diet with a balance of grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy and meat. It recommends 6 ounces of grains, two and half cups of vegetables, one and a half cups of fruits, 3 cups milk or dairy products and 5 ounces of meat and beans(United Stated Department of Agriculture). One ounce of grains is roughly once slice of bread or half a cup of cooked pasta. One cup of yogurt or one and a half ounces of cheese is equal to a cup of milk. One egg or one tablespoon peanut butter is equal to about an ounce of meat. In addition to these general recommendations, you can go to www.mypyramid.gov and determine your own specific guidelines for your height, weight, age and gender. The USDA also lists some general tips in addition to the diet recommendations already listed. When eating grains, try and make at least half of them whole grains. Fruits and vegetables need to be multiple different colors because they have different kinds of nutrients. Try to switch to low fat or fat free milk if you are currently drinking whole milk. Lastly, focus on lean meats such as poultry or lean beef and trim away excess fat before cooking. '''Causes''' The driving factors behind these numbers are the same two things everyone keeps coming back to: diet and exercise. The children of today’s generation are much more sedentary than past generations. Multiple reasons for this have been stated, including video game usage and lack of safety for children to be playing outside. Looking at diet, there are a few driving factors. There has been a huge increase in portion size for foods as well as the amount of fat and sugar in the foods that children are eating. Also another key factor that brings together diet and exercise is caloric expenditure. Caloric expenditure occurs when a child eats more than they burn, this caloric uptake leads to the child’s weight being well above the average for their height and age. Besides diet and exercise, according to the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, some of the other potential causes of childhood obesity are family environment/influence and genetics. In regards to genetics, if one parent is obese, a child has a 50% chance of being obese. Furthermore, if both parents are obese, the child has an 80% chance of being obese. Another cause that may be overlooked is a child not receiving the recommended amount of sleep. Sleep is an important part of a child’s life, but not getting enough sleep can actually lead to a higher chance of being overweight (Crothers et al., 2009). Simply adding an hour of sleep can lower an 8 to 12 year old child’s chances of becoming overweight by 30% to 34% (Crothers et al., 2009). =='''Future Problems'''== Childhood obesity is not only is a serious medical condition but is also becoming a serious epidemic. Childhood obesity has a significant impact on the child’s self-esteem. A study at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey found that obese girls ages 13 to 14 are four times more likely to experience low self-esteem than non-obese girls (Levey 1). If mental health issues weren’t bad enough, children are now dealing with health issues only once plagued by adults such as type II diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol. Type II diabetes is a disease in which the body becomes resistant to insulin. Insulin directs tissues in the body to absorb nutrients (especially sugar to be used and stored for energy), so resistance to insulin causes hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) which leads to high blood pressure, atherosclerosis (collection of fat in arteries), and other life-threatening conditions. Type II diabetes was once considered an adult condition, but the childhood obesity epidemic has caused the instance of diabetes to increase dramatically in children and adolescents. It is no wonder that heart disease, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure occur more frequently in obese children (MICA 2010). Besides the immediate health risks, 70% of obese children grow-up to be obese adults. With 39.4% of Missouri’s children being overweight, obese, or at risk to become overweight or obese, the CDC’s exercise requirements must be enforced and must be employed in our children’s daily lives. =='''References'''== Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010,May 10). How much physical activity do children need.Retrieved October 6, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/children.html Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015,August 14). Establish school environments that support healthy eating and physical activity. Retrieved September 20, 2015, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/npao/schoolenvironment.html Crigler, J. (2003). METROPOLITAN KANSAS CITY. Kansas City: Prime Health Foundation. Crothers, L., Kehle, T., Bray, M., & Theodore, L. (2009). Correlates and suspected causes of obesity in children. Psychology in the Schools, 46(8), 787-796. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=30e2573c-62cd-42a8-98ef-eede155e88d1@sessionmgr12&vid=3&hid=22&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ== Levey, Amy. "EurekAlert." EurekAlert. (2003): 1. Print. <http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-10/apa-ocb100103.php>. Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., Lamb, M. M., & Flegal, K. M. (2009). Prevalence of High Body Mass Index in US Children and Adolescents, 2007-2008. Journal of the American Medical Association . Physical Activity for Everyone. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2010, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/children.html State of Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services. (2010,October 10). Community data profiles.Retrieved October 6,2010, from http://www.dhss.mo.gov/CommunityDataProfiles/index.html The Obesity Epidemic and Missouri Students. (2009). Retrieved September 30, 2010, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention:Http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/yrbs/pdf/obesity/mo_obesity_combo.pdf United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2010, from My Pyramid ttp://www.mypyramid.gov/mypyramid/results.htmlname=undefined&age=1&gender=male&weight=89&heightfeet=4&heightinch=11&activity=sed&we ightN=89&heightfeetN=4&heightinchN=11&validweight=0&validheight=0& [[category:obesity]] [[category:Medicine]] 3pb4fjk7kbm8xbco942dups3auphgwp 2830377 2830376 2026-09-02T04:15:28Z Michael Ten 654933 /* =Exercise */ fixed heading 2830377 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Childhood obesity'''== Heart disease. Type II diabetes. Arthritis. Asthma. Cancer. These diseases have traditionally been associated with the adult population, but they have overwhelmingly been appearing in the childhood population thanks to childhood obesity (MICA 2010). Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more. Body mass index is measured on a height-to-weight scale. Therefore, an individual who is 5’9 and weighs 180 pounds will have a higher BMI than an individual who is 6’0 and weights 180 pounds. BMI does not take into account lean tissue, such as in athletes, however children normally are unaffected by this flaw in calculation since they typically do not have a great amount of lean tissue. =='''Statistics'''== In the past decade, obesity in children has risen dramatically. The percentage of overweight children in the United States is growing at an alarming rate, with 1 out of 3 kids now considered overweight or obese (CDC). Prevalence of obese middle school children has increased 75% in the last five years, and the prevalence of obese high school students has increased by 64% during the same time period (MICA 2010). The United States has seen a huge increase in the past five decades in obesity among all of its citizens. The rate of overweight men and women has doubled from the 1950’s to the 1990’s, while the level of obesity has increased more than threefold in the same time span. In 2008, more than one third of US children and adolescents aged 6–19 were overweight or obese (CDC). When looking at the United States’ children specifically, the rates are astonishing. 9.5% of children under the age of two are obese. That rate rises to 11.9% in the 2-9 year old age group (Ogden et al 2009). The rate is even for the children of Missouri. 14% of children are considered obese in Missouri (The Obesity Epidemic and Missouri Students 2009). Clay County is where the numbers get scary. Overall, the level of obesity for children is lower in Clay County than the rate for Missouri as a whole. 10.8% of 2-5 year olds and 10.2% of 5-20 year olds have a body mass index in the obese range (Crigler 2003). The level of children who are overweight for the same age ranges are significantly higher. 17.0% of 2-5 year olds and 19.6% of 5-20 year olds are overweight (Crigler 2003). These are the highest rates for the entire Kansas City area. All of these statistics are the driving force behind the Clay60 program of the Clay County Public Health Center. =='''Exercise'''== The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have proclaimed that two modifiable factors that lead to obesity are diet and exercise (2010). The CDC’s following exercise requirements for children will combat obesity and lead to a higher overall quality of life: • Children 6-17 should take part in aerobic activity for 60 or more minutes every day • Children 6-17 should take part in muscle strengthening exercises (gymnastics, push-ups, etc) three days per week as a part of the 60 or more minutes • Children 6-17 should take part in bone strengthening exercises (jumping rope, running, etc) three days per week as part of the 60 or more minutes Following these guidelines every day will help our children stay fit, and will actively combat obesity and the diseases associated with the debilitating condition. As a community, we need to support the physical education curriculum within Missouri’s school districts, and we absolutely must turn the T.V. off and force our kids to be active. Children who exercise build more lean tissue (muscle), have lower blood sugar levels, and have a lower risk for heart disease and diabetes than sedentary children. Besides the immediate health benefits associated with exercising, children who are fit enjoy a greater social experience, have more friends, and are happier overall more than obese children (CDC 2010). The slogan “Clay 60” is just a reminder that Clay County residents should make sure their children are playing and exercising for 60 minutes every single day so they can lead longer, healthier, and happier lives! =='''Nutrition'''== In order to combat the change in eating habits, The United States Department of Agriculture has set forth guidelines for the recommended daily servings with the food guide pyramid as well as other tips for eating a healthy balanced diet. The general recommendations for kids are for an 1800 calorie diet with a balance of grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy and meat. It recommends 6 ounces of grains, two and half cups of vegetables, one and a half cups of fruits, 3 cups milk or dairy products and 5 ounces of meat and beans(United Stated Department of Agriculture). One ounce of grains is roughly once slice of bread or half a cup of cooked pasta. One cup of yogurt or one and a half ounces of cheese is equal to a cup of milk. One egg or one tablespoon peanut butter is equal to about an ounce of meat. In addition to these general recommendations, you can go to www.mypyramid.gov and determine your own specific guidelines for your height, weight, age and gender. The USDA also lists some general tips in addition to the diet recommendations already listed. When eating grains, try and make at least half of them whole grains. Fruits and vegetables need to be multiple different colors because they have different kinds of nutrients. Try to switch to low fat or fat free milk if you are currently drinking whole milk. Lastly, focus on lean meats such as poultry or lean beef and trim away excess fat before cooking. '''Causes''' The driving factors behind these numbers are the same two things everyone keeps coming back to: diet and exercise. The children of today’s generation are much more sedentary than past generations. Multiple reasons for this have been stated, including video game usage and lack of safety for children to be playing outside. Looking at diet, there are a few driving factors. There has been a huge increase in portion size for foods as well as the amount of fat and sugar in the foods that children are eating. Also another key factor that brings together diet and exercise is caloric expenditure. Caloric expenditure occurs when a child eats more than they burn, this caloric uptake leads to the child’s weight being well above the average for their height and age. Besides diet and exercise, according to the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, some of the other potential causes of childhood obesity are family environment/influence and genetics. In regards to genetics, if one parent is obese, a child has a 50% chance of being obese. Furthermore, if both parents are obese, the child has an 80% chance of being obese. Another cause that may be overlooked is a child not receiving the recommended amount of sleep. Sleep is an important part of a child’s life, but not getting enough sleep can actually lead to a higher chance of being overweight (Crothers et al., 2009). Simply adding an hour of sleep can lower an 8 to 12 year old child’s chances of becoming overweight by 30% to 34% (Crothers et al., 2009). =='''Future Problems'''== Childhood obesity is not only is a serious medical condition but is also becoming a serious epidemic. Childhood obesity has a significant impact on the child’s self-esteem. A study at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey found that obese girls ages 13 to 14 are four times more likely to experience low self-esteem than non-obese girls (Levey 1). If mental health issues weren’t bad enough, children are now dealing with health issues only once plagued by adults such as type II diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol. Type II diabetes is a disease in which the body becomes resistant to insulin. Insulin directs tissues in the body to absorb nutrients (especially sugar to be used and stored for energy), so resistance to insulin causes hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) which leads to high blood pressure, atherosclerosis (collection of fat in arteries), and other life-threatening conditions. Type II diabetes was once considered an adult condition, but the childhood obesity epidemic has caused the instance of diabetes to increase dramatically in children and adolescents. It is no wonder that heart disease, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure occur more frequently in obese children (MICA 2010). Besides the immediate health risks, 70% of obese children grow-up to be obese adults. With 39.4% of Missouri’s children being overweight, obese, or at risk to become overweight or obese, the CDC’s exercise requirements must be enforced and must be employed in our children’s daily lives. =='''References'''== Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010,May 10). How much physical activity do children need.Retrieved October 6, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/children.html Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015,August 14). Establish school environments that support healthy eating and physical activity. Retrieved September 20, 2015, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/npao/schoolenvironment.html Crigler, J. (2003). METROPOLITAN KANSAS CITY. Kansas City: Prime Health Foundation. Crothers, L., Kehle, T., Bray, M., & Theodore, L. (2009). Correlates and suspected causes of obesity in children. Psychology in the Schools, 46(8), 787-796. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=30e2573c-62cd-42a8-98ef-eede155e88d1@sessionmgr12&vid=3&hid=22&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ== Levey, Amy. "EurekAlert." EurekAlert. (2003): 1. Print. <http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-10/apa-ocb100103.php>. Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., Lamb, M. M., & Flegal, K. M. (2009). Prevalence of High Body Mass Index in US Children and Adolescents, 2007-2008. Journal of the American Medical Association . Physical Activity for Everyone. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2010, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/children.html State of Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services. (2010,October 10). Community data profiles.Retrieved October 6,2010, from http://www.dhss.mo.gov/CommunityDataProfiles/index.html The Obesity Epidemic and Missouri Students. (2009). Retrieved September 30, 2010, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention:Http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/yrbs/pdf/obesity/mo_obesity_combo.pdf United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2010, from My Pyramid ttp://www.mypyramid.gov/mypyramid/results.htmlname=undefined&age=1&gender=male&weight=89&heightfeet=4&heightinch=11&activity=sed&we ightN=89&heightfeetN=4&heightinchN=11&validweight=0&validheight=0& [[category:obesity]] [[category:Medicine]] 7ooliessbwmtfymk06vol3auj59zbnf 0 116832 2830262 2562741 2026-09-01T17:36:22Z Michael Ten 654933 /* See also */ fix namespace and organize with === Wikipedia readings=== 2830262 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and linguistics. It studies the problems of automated generation and understanding of natural human languages. Natural language generation systems convert information from computer databases into normal-sounding human language, and natural language understanding systems convert samples of human language into more formal representations that are easier for computer programs to manipulate. The field is divided in two major categories: * [[Speech Recognition]] and generation, and * text interpretation and generation. The technologies needed for both are very different, "speech" being addressed normally by Electronic or Telecommunications Engineers, while "text" being more addressed by Computer Scientists. Additionally, Speech recognition and speech generation are normally architectured as a layer over a Text recognition / generation engine. To follow a course on NLP, you must know about [[w:en:Formal language|Formal languages]] and [[Grammar]]s, and be able to program fluently. For the practicals, you must learn a [[w:en:Logic programming|Logic programming]] language; [[w:en:Prolog|Prolog]] is recommended. A [[w:en:rule based programming|rule based programming]] language can serve as well, although it perhaps is more difficult to master. == Document Decomposition == [[File:AST Document.svg|thumb|Abstract Syntax Tree Document]] If you look on this text above * the '''document''' consists of ''sections'', * each '''section''' consists of ''paragraphs'', * each '''paragraph''' consists of ''sentences'', * each '''sentence''' consist of ''words'' and * '''words''' consist of ''characters/symbols''. Furthermore the text contains more information we could identify, e.g. a header or links. In general a document can contain other document elements images, audio, video or interactive elements like forms or geometric construction that can be manipulated by the reader. == Abstract Syntax Tree == A tree can represent the decomposition of text into substructures. The decomposition of text into sections is e.g. the top level of an [[Abstract Syntax Tree]] (AST). == Learning Activities == * '''(Abstract Syntax Tree)''' Draw the top level of the [[Abstract Syntax Tree]] (AST) that decomposes this text into sections, * '''(Language Section Decomposition)''' Look into specific languages like [[HTML]], [[Markdown]], [[Latex]], ... and identify syntax elements that are available to determine headers in a texts, * '''([[b:en:JavaScript/Regular_expressions|Regular Expression]])''' write a [[b:en:JavaScript/Regular_expressions|regular expression e.g. in Javascript]] that extracts headers (e.g. "Introduction") and the level of the header (i.e. section, subsection, ... ) ** in HTML the level 1 is defined with h1, h2, ... tags, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 <pre> <h1>Introduction</h1> Text <h2>My Subsection </h2> Text of subsection </pre> :* in Latex the levels are defined with \section{...}, \subsection{...}, ... command, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 are defined in Latex with the following commands <pre> \section{Introduction} Text \section{My Subsection}} Text of subsection </pre> ==See also== * [[Portal:Computational linguistics]] * [[Portal:Artificial intelligence]] * [[Speech Recognition]] === Wikipedia readings=== * [[w:en:Natural language processing|Natural Language Processing (NLP)]] * [[w:en:Computational linguistics|Computational Linuguistics]] * [[w:en:Natural Language Toolkit|Natural Language Toolkit]] [[Category:Natural language processing]] anlsr5djhttzoec993dvssqdcr820s0 2830263 2830262 2026-09-01T17:37:41Z Michael Ten 654933 added How has machine learning and artificial intelligence changed natural language processing technologies over the last few years? (==Discussion/essay/AI prompt ideas==) bless up. 2830263 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and linguistics. It studies the problems of automated generation and understanding of natural human languages. Natural language generation systems convert information from computer databases into normal-sounding human language, and natural language understanding systems convert samples of human language into more formal representations that are easier for computer programs to manipulate. The field is divided in two major categories: * [[Speech Recognition]] and generation, and * text interpretation and generation. The technologies needed for both are very different, "speech" being addressed normally by Electronic or Telecommunications Engineers, while "text" being more addressed by Computer Scientists. Additionally, Speech recognition and speech generation are normally architectured as a layer over a Text recognition / generation engine. To follow a course on NLP, you must know about [[w:en:Formal language|Formal languages]] and [[Grammar]]s, and be able to program fluently. For the practicals, you must learn a [[w:en:Logic programming|Logic programming]] language; [[w:en:Prolog|Prolog]] is recommended. A [[w:en:rule based programming|rule based programming]] language can serve as well, although it perhaps is more difficult to master. == Document Decomposition == [[File:AST Document.svg|thumb|Abstract Syntax Tree Document]] If you look on this text above * the '''document''' consists of ''sections'', * each '''section''' consists of ''paragraphs'', * each '''paragraph''' consists of ''sentences'', * each '''sentence''' consist of ''words'' and * '''words''' consist of ''characters/symbols''. Furthermore the text contains more information we could identify, e.g. a header or links. In general a document can contain other document elements images, audio, video or interactive elements like forms or geometric construction that can be manipulated by the reader. == Abstract Syntax Tree == A tree can represent the decomposition of text into substructures. The decomposition of text into sections is e.g. the top level of an [[Abstract Syntax Tree]] (AST). == Learning Activities == * '''(Abstract Syntax Tree)''' Draw the top level of the [[Abstract Syntax Tree]] (AST) that decomposes this text into sections, * '''(Language Section Decomposition)''' Look into specific languages like [[HTML]], [[Markdown]], [[Latex]], ... and identify syntax elements that are available to determine headers in a texts, * '''([[b:en:JavaScript/Regular_expressions|Regular Expression]])''' write a [[b:en:JavaScript/Regular_expressions|regular expression e.g. in Javascript]] that extracts headers (e.g. "Introduction") and the level of the header (i.e. section, subsection, ... ) ** in HTML the level 1 is defined with h1, h2, ... tags, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 <pre> <h1>Introduction</h1> Text <h2>My Subsection </h2> Text of subsection </pre> :* in Latex the levels are defined with \section{...}, \subsection{...}, ... command, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 are defined in Latex with the following commands <pre> \section{Introduction} Text \section{My Subsection}} Text of subsection </pre> ==Discussion/essay/AI prompt ideas== * How has machine learning and artificial intelligence changed natural language processing technologies over the last few years? ==See also== * [[Portal:Computational linguistics]] * [[Portal:Artificial intelligence]] * [[Speech Recognition]] === Wikipedia readings=== * [[w:en:Natural language processing|Natural Language Processing (NLP)]] * [[w:en:Computational linguistics|Computational Linuguistics]] * [[w:en:Natural Language Toolkit|Natural Language Toolkit]] [[Category:Natural language processing]] 8nqriq8ygqc68h8zvi1vv096txbd5cv 2830264 2830263 2026-09-01T17:38:04Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Discussion/essay/AI prompt ideas */ ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas== 2830264 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and linguistics. It studies the problems of automated generation and understanding of natural human languages. Natural language generation systems convert information from computer databases into normal-sounding human language, and natural language understanding systems convert samples of human language into more formal representations that are easier for computer programs to manipulate. The field is divided in two major categories: * [[Speech Recognition]] and generation, and * text interpretation and generation. The technologies needed for both are very different, "speech" being addressed normally by Electronic or Telecommunications Engineers, while "text" being more addressed by Computer Scientists. Additionally, Speech recognition and speech generation are normally architectured as a layer over a Text recognition / generation engine. To follow a course on NLP, you must know about [[w:en:Formal language|Formal languages]] and [[Grammar]]s, and be able to program fluently. For the practicals, you must learn a [[w:en:Logic programming|Logic programming]] language; [[w:en:Prolog|Prolog]] is recommended. A [[w:en:rule based programming|rule based programming]] language can serve as well, although it perhaps is more difficult to master. == Document Decomposition == [[File:AST Document.svg|thumb|Abstract Syntax Tree Document]] If you look on this text above * the '''document''' consists of ''sections'', * each '''section''' consists of ''paragraphs'', * each '''paragraph''' consists of ''sentences'', * each '''sentence''' consist of ''words'' and * '''words''' consist of ''characters/symbols''. Furthermore the text contains more information we could identify, e.g. a header or links. In general a document can contain other document elements images, audio, video or interactive elements like forms or geometric construction that can be manipulated by the reader. == Abstract Syntax Tree == A tree can represent the decomposition of text into substructures. The decomposition of text into sections is e.g. the top level of an [[Abstract Syntax Tree]] (AST). == Learning Activities == * '''(Abstract Syntax Tree)''' Draw the top level of the [[Abstract Syntax Tree]] (AST) that decomposes this text into sections, * '''(Language Section Decomposition)''' Look into specific languages like [[HTML]], [[Markdown]], [[Latex]], ... and identify syntax elements that are available to determine headers in a texts, * '''([[b:en:JavaScript/Regular_expressions|Regular Expression]])''' write a [[b:en:JavaScript/Regular_expressions|regular expression e.g. in Javascript]] that extracts headers (e.g. "Introduction") and the level of the header (i.e. section, subsection, ... ) ** in HTML the level 1 is defined with h1, h2, ... tags, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 <pre> <h1>Introduction</h1> Text <h2>My Subsection </h2> Text of subsection </pre> :* in Latex the levels are defined with \section{...}, \subsection{...}, ... command, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 are defined in Latex with the following commands <pre> \section{Introduction} Text \section{My Subsection}} Text of subsection </pre> ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas== * How has machine learning and artificial intelligence changed natural language processing technologies over the last few years? ==See also== * [[Portal:Computational linguistics]] * [[Portal:Artificial intelligence]] * [[Speech Recognition]] === Wikipedia readings=== * [[w:en:Natural language processing|Natural Language Processing (NLP)]] * [[w:en:Computational linguistics|Computational Linuguistics]] * [[w:en:Natural Language Toolkit|Natural Language Toolkit]] [[Category:Natural language processing]] 0f7cmp8amlsexaf65cie28l2j0g2gvd 0 127630 2830320 2223595 2026-09-01T23:47:31Z Michael Ten 654933 update formatting some. 2830320 wikitext text/x-wiki After completing this module on '''Reducing Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning''', instructional designers will apply instructional methods that can reduce cognitive load when creating multimedia training. The result will be instruction that learners find more efficient, effective, and appealing. == Key Learning Objectives == At the completion of this Wikiversity module, you will be able to: * Identify the type of learner overload and recommend a solution for reducing overload using the methods described. * Provide a definition for the terms Dual Channel, Limited Capacity, and Active Processing. * Correctly label each section of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning model. * Give examples of essential processing, incidental processing, and representational holding.<br> == Reducing Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning Topics == # [[Introduction:What’s Wrong With This Picture?]] # [[Coming to Terms: Defining What Is]] # [[What’s Going On In There?: How the mind works in multimedia instruction]] # [[Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning]] # [[Cognitive Theory of MML Continued]] # [[What’s Your Type of Overload?]] # [[Find and Fix]] # [[Find and Fix Answers]] # [[MML Test Your Understanding]] Click '''Next''' to continue. {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 | [[Topic:Instructional Design | Instructional Design]] | [[Topic:Instructional Design | < Back]] | [[Introduction:What’s Wrong With This Picture?|Next >]] | [[Introduction:What’s Wrong With This Picture?| What's Wrong?]] |} 30w5c1qrho02y9iowt2b3b3ccsweqzb 0 136794 2830460 2829025 2026-09-02T11:34:28Z Young1lim 21186 /* Copilot Notes */ 2830460 wikitext text/x-wiki This course belongs to the [[Electrical & Computer Engineering Studies]] == Introduction == * Introduction ([[Media:SysP.Intro.20161128.pdf|pdf]]) == File System == * File System ([[Media:SysP.FileSystem.20251023.pdf|pdf]]) * File Pointer ([[Media:SysP..FilePointer.20161103.pdf|pdf]]) * System Calls ([[Media:SysP.File.SysCall.20161128.pdf|pdf]]) * File IO ([[Media:SysP.FileIO.20251023.pdf|pdf]]) === Copilot Notes === * File System ([[Media:glibcFileSystem.20251029-2.pdf|pdf]]) * File Descriptor Table ([[Media:CP.File.Descriptor.20260811.pdf|pdf]]) * File Buffer ([[Media:glibcFileBuffer.20251025-2.pdf|pdf]]) * File IO ([[Media:glibcFileIO.20251025-2.pdf|pdf]]) * File Permission ([[Media:glibcFilePerm.20260121.pdf|pdf]]) * File Control ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.20260428.pdf|pdf]]) :- Overview ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.A.20260824.pdf|pdf]]) :- Duplicating ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.B.20260831.pdf|pdf]]) :- Locking ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.B.20260504.pdf|pdf]]) :- IO ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.C.20260501.pdf|pdf]]) <br> <br> == Process == * Process ([[Media:SysP.Process.20251120.pdf|pdf]]) * Fork ([[Media:SysP.Fork.20251126.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Information ([[Media:glibc.Process.1Info.20251101.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Control ([[Media:glibc.Process.2Control.20251103.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Execution ([[Media:glibc.Proc.3Exec.20251105.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Fork ([[Media:glibc.Proc.4Fork.20251106.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Context Switching ([[Media:glibc.Proc.5Context.20251107.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Exec family of functions ([[Media:glibc.Proc.6ExecCall.20251112.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Wait family of functions ([[Media:glibc.Proc.7WaitCall.20251112.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Exit ([[Media:glibc.Proc.8Exit.20251113.pdf|pdf]]) </br> == Inter Process Communication== === Signal === * Signal ([[Media:SysP.7.A.Signal.20121206.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Signal 1. Alarm ([[Media:glibc.Signal.Alarm.20251201.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Signal 2. Other Functions ([[Media:glibc.Signal.2Other.20251205.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Pipe === * Pipe ([[Media:SysP.3.A.IPC.20121115.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Pipe 1. A Special File ([[Media:glibc.Pipe.File.20260307.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === System V IPC === * Message Queue ([[Media:SysP.5.A.MessageQ.20121213.pdf|pdf]]) * Shared Memory ([[Media:SysP.8.A.SharedMem.20121227.pdf|pdf]]) * Semaphore ([[Media:SysP.6.A.Semaphore.20251215.pdf|pdf]]) </br> * Copilot: Message Queue ([[Media:glibc.MessageQ.20251202.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Shared Memory ([[Media:glibc.SharedMem.20251203.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Semaphore ([[Media:glibc.Semaphore.20251215.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Socket === * Socket ([[Media:SysP.4.A.Socket.20121122.pdf|pdf]]) </br> == Thread == * POSIX thread (pthread) ([[Media:SysP.9.A.Pthread.20130225.pdf|pdf]]) ==External links== * [http://www.tldp.org/LDP/tlk/tlk.html The Linux Kernel] * [http://www.tldp.org/LDP/lpg/lpg.html The Linux Programmer's Guide] * [http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/C/ Programming in C - UNIX System Calls and Subroutines using C.] * [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/academic/class/15492-f07/www/pthreads.html POSIX thread (pthread) libraries] * [https://computing.llnl.gov/tutorials/pthreads/#Thread POSIX Threads Programming] [[Category:Linux]] [[Category:Computer programming]] [[Category:C programming language]] qxafht4wsq4l5ghnbz1jb3pzap6fev8 2830462 2830460 2026-09-02T11:36:47Z Young1lim 21186 /* Copilot Notes */ 2830462 wikitext text/x-wiki This course belongs to the [[Electrical & Computer Engineering Studies]] == Introduction == * Introduction ([[Media:SysP.Intro.20161128.pdf|pdf]]) == File System == * File System ([[Media:SysP.FileSystem.20251023.pdf|pdf]]) * File Pointer ([[Media:SysP..FilePointer.20161103.pdf|pdf]]) * System Calls ([[Media:SysP.File.SysCall.20161128.pdf|pdf]]) * File IO ([[Media:SysP.FileIO.20251023.pdf|pdf]]) === Copilot Notes === * File System ([[Media:glibcFileSystem.20251029-2.pdf|pdf]]) * File Descriptor Table ([[Media:CP.File.Descriptor.20260811.pdf|pdf]]) * File Buffer ([[Media:glibcFileBuffer.20251025-2.pdf|pdf]]) * File IO ([[Media:glibcFileIO.20251025-2.pdf|pdf]]) * File Permission ([[Media:glibcFilePerm.20260121.pdf|pdf]]) * File Control ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.20260428.pdf|pdf]]) :- Overview ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.A.20260824.pdf|pdf]]) :- Duplicating ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.B.20260901.pdf|pdf]]) :- Locking ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.B.20260504.pdf|pdf]]) :- IO ([[Media:CP.FileCntl.C.20260501.pdf|pdf]]) <br> <br> == Process == * Process ([[Media:SysP.Process.20251120.pdf|pdf]]) * Fork ([[Media:SysP.Fork.20251126.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Information ([[Media:glibc.Process.1Info.20251101.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Control ([[Media:glibc.Process.2Control.20251103.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Execution ([[Media:glibc.Proc.3Exec.20251105.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Fork ([[Media:glibc.Proc.4Fork.20251106.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Context Switching ([[Media:glibc.Proc.5Context.20251107.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Exec family of functions ([[Media:glibc.Proc.6ExecCall.20251112.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Wait family of functions ([[Media:glibc.Proc.7WaitCall.20251112.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Process Exit ([[Media:glibc.Proc.8Exit.20251113.pdf|pdf]]) </br> == Inter Process Communication== === Signal === * Signal ([[Media:SysP.7.A.Signal.20121206.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Signal 1. Alarm ([[Media:glibc.Signal.Alarm.20251201.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Signal 2. Other Functions ([[Media:glibc.Signal.2Other.20251205.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Pipe === * Pipe ([[Media:SysP.3.A.IPC.20121115.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Pipe 1. A Special File ([[Media:glibc.Pipe.File.20260307.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === System V IPC === * Message Queue ([[Media:SysP.5.A.MessageQ.20121213.pdf|pdf]]) * Shared Memory ([[Media:SysP.8.A.SharedMem.20121227.pdf|pdf]]) * Semaphore ([[Media:SysP.6.A.Semaphore.20251215.pdf|pdf]]) </br> * Copilot: Message Queue ([[Media:glibc.MessageQ.20251202.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Shared Memory ([[Media:glibc.SharedMem.20251203.pdf|pdf]]) * Copilot: Semaphore ([[Media:glibc.Semaphore.20251215.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Socket === * Socket ([[Media:SysP.4.A.Socket.20121122.pdf|pdf]]) </br> == Thread == * POSIX thread (pthread) ([[Media:SysP.9.A.Pthread.20130225.pdf|pdf]]) ==External links== * [http://www.tldp.org/LDP/tlk/tlk.html The Linux Kernel] * [http://www.tldp.org/LDP/lpg/lpg.html The Linux Programmer's Guide] * [http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/C/ Programming in C - UNIX System Calls and Subroutines using C.] * [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/academic/class/15492-f07/www/pthreads.html POSIX thread (pthread) libraries] * [https://computing.llnl.gov/tutorials/pthreads/#Thread POSIX Threads Programming] [[Category:Linux]] [[Category:Computer programming]] [[Category:C programming language]] 0hop2yi9bu131m5owdh4ewb7601j5l0 0 139384 2830205 2829445 2026-09-01T13:40:47Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2830205 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260831.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260831.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] bs3wjzcqirzffo11ryzlj52w9r4zawk 2830208 2830205 2026-09-01T13:43:43Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2830208 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260901.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260901.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] dsk3q6xo1awxpecg4q4bby2tgswoi6j 0 152161 2830235 2818778 2026-09-01T16:25:50Z Michael Ten 654933 2830235 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="width:100%; margin-bottom: .6em; -moz-border-radius: 4px; text-align:center; border: 1px solid #50A6C2; background-color:#F0F8FF; padding: .6em .6em .6em .6em;" | | width="100px" | [[File:Constitution of the United States - DPLA - 9ca804144bd5965e992ae3528bc3c6a3 (page 1).jpg|100px|frameless]] | <div style="font-size:200%;border:none;margin: 0;padding:.1em;color:#000">'''United States Law Learning Project'''</div> <div style="top:+0.2em;font-size:150%">part of the [[School:Law|'''School of Law''']]</div> | width="100px" | [[File:Scale of justice 2.svg|75px|frameless]] | |} <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:99%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Welcome</h2 > A very warm welcome to the {{w|United States Law}} Learning Project! The legal system of the United States of America is a complex one with two major levels, namely the federal and state levels. The training of lawyers is controlled by the {{w|American Bar Association}} (ABA). Lawyers advise their clients on legal matters including writing contracts, interpreting the law, and representing them in court. Another aspect of US law is that it also split into civil and criminal law. Both may involve courts, but the rules are different. In a court trial, criminal cases are more likely to involve juries than civil cases. There are two basic differences between civil and criminal cases: # Civil cases are decided on the weight of the evidence. Criminal cases require proof beyond {{w|reasonable doubt}}. # Civil cases involving a jury require a majority. Criminal cases require a unanimous decision. An example of the difference between the two is the civil suit brought against the {{w|Federal Bureau of Investigation}} (FBI) for their role in the assassination of {{w|Martin Luther King, Jr.}}: the family succeeded because a majority of the jurors concluded that the weight of the evidence favored the family. A criminal procedure did not come to trial, presumably because the prosecutors felt that the evidence was not sufficient to obtain a unanimous judgment beyond reasonable doubt that certain FBI agents were complicit.<ref>{{cite book |author={{w|William Francis Pepper|Pepper, William F.}} | year=1995 | title=Orders to Kill: The truth behind the murder of Martin Luther King, Jr. |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-67394-3}}</ref> Any questions about following the US Constitution can be presented to the {{w|Supreme Court}} whose nine judges can deem a law or action unconstitutional. If deemed such it is impossible to reinstated unless the Supreme Court revokes its judgement or it is overturned by a subsequent constitutional amendment. This Project focusses on US Law and covers topics at a college level but it is not a formal qualification. The Project is designed to provide an informal learning experience, which may provide knowledge and skills that can be used elsewhere. The Project comprises a number of units, each of which covers a separate area of US Law. As tempting as it might be to compare this with the structure of a formal law degree, Wikiversity does not allocate "credits" or "points" to any of the units. Each unit contains a number of smaller subunits and is designed to be studied alongside a relevant textbook from Wikibooks, one of the partner websites of Wikiversity. The links for the textbooks can be found at the start of each unit. Each unit outline will also list additional recommended texts, articles and other materials, which are not compulsory but intended for deeper independent study. Throughout each unit there will be opportunities in the form of quizzes and short essays to enable you to reflect on the material and see how much you understand. There is a larger quiz at the end of the unit, which you can repeat as any times as you wish until you are confident of your understanding of the material. Additionally, there are a number of case studies and suggested essays to complement your studies as well as recommendations for further reading. </div> <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Project summary</h2 > * '''Project code:''' United States Law * '''Prerequisites:''' None * '''Time investment:''' 1 calendar year * '''Assessment suggestions:''' ** A series of quizzes in lieu of examinations on various aspects of United States Law including relevant case law: '''40%'''<!--estimated guess--> ** A series of detailed essays written as journal articles for peer-reviewing: '''40%'''<!--estimated guess--> ** A multi-part personal development portfolio: '''20%'''<!--estimated guess--> * '''[[WV:Major portals|Portal]]:''' [[Portal:Humanities|Humanities]] * '''[[WV:Schools|School]]:''' [[School:Law|Law]] * '''Level:''' Introductory—Advanced </div> <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Content summary</h2 > * In this Learning Project, participants will learn about the history and development of United States Law from the 18th century to the modern era, with a particular focus on areas that are usually part of law degrees. * One of the goals of this project is to utilise free materials, so the learner does not have to pay expensive subscriptions. This will be achieved by the use of a series of free textbooks (from Wikibooks), original source material for statutes and cases, a series of [[Wikiversity Law Reports]], the development of a [[Wikiversity Law Review]], quizzes and other freely available resources. * It will be noted that purely academic study is insufficient in preparing for legal practice and thus there will be suggested tools to enable some of these aspects. The limitations of online courses like this inhibit more active participation such as the classical skill of {{w|moot court}} but there will be recommendations for overcoming these obstacles. </div> <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Goals</h2 > * Study and understand the origins of United States Law; * Examine the current state of United States Law; * Suggest tools and methods for participants to improve their practical skills. </div> <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Resources</h2> {{center|'''<big>[[/Introduction/]]</big>'''<br>[[/History/]]&nbsp;&#9642;&nbsp;[[/Reform/]]&nbsp;&#9642;&nbsp;[[/System/]]&nbsp;&#9642;&nbsp;[[/Legal Writing/]]&nbsp;&#9642;&nbsp;[[/First Year Guide/]]}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Comparative law and justice/United States]] * [[/Civil Procedure/]] ([[:b:US Civil Procedure|Wikibook]]) * [[/Constitutional/]] * [[/Contract/]] ([[:b:US Contract Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Copyright/]] ([[:b:US Copyright Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Corporate/]] ([[:b:US Corporate Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Criminal/]] ([[:b:US Criminal Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Education/]] * [[/Evidence/]] ([[:b:Federal Rules of Evidence|Wikibook]]) * [[/Patents/]] ([[:b:US Patent Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Property/]] ([[:b:US Property Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Tort/]] ([[:b:US Tort Law|Wikibook]]) * [[/Trusts and Estates/]] ([[:b:US Trusts and Estates Law|Wikibook]]) * [[Pro se legal representation]] {{col-break}} ;Supplementary * [[/Ethics/]] * [[/Bibliography/]] ** [[/Bibliography/Authors|Authors]] * [[Wikiversity Law Reports]] ** [[/Case List/]] * [[/Statute List/]] * [[Wikiversity Law Review]] {{col-end}} </div> <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">[[Portal:Learning Projects#Learning Groups|Active participants]]</h2 > * {{u|Green Giant}} * {{u|Jadecoppieters}} * <!--Add your signature here using {{u|Username}}--> </div> <div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Notes</h2 > {{Reflist}} </div> == External links== * [https://romeoandjulietlaw.us/ close age consumption law ] [[Category:United States Law| ]] __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ 5xhe0y76sx25udqy3m0ezvcss84aodu 4 159013 2830270 2819942 2026-09-01T17:54:31Z MediaWiki message delivery 983498 /* This Month in Education: August 2026 */ new section 2830270 wikitext text/x-wiki == Archives == * [[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives]] == This Month in Education: January 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 7 | Issue 1 | January 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> {{anchor|back}} <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]] | style="width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | <!-- Enter the title of the articles for this issue --> [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 1|Bertsomate: using Basque oral poetry to illustrate math concepts]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 2|Wikimedia Serbia celebrated 10 years from the first article written within the Education Program]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 3|WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique update]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 4|The first Swedish Master's in Digital Humanities partners with Wikimedia Sverige]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 5|How we use PetScan to improve partnership with lecturers and professors]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 6|The Education Survey Report is out!]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 7|Education Extension scheduled shutdown]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 18:42, 1 February 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter&oldid=17696217 --> == This Month in Education: February 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 7 | Issue 2 | February 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 2|WikiProject Engineering Workshop at IIUC,Chittagong]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 3|What did we learn from Wikibridges MOOC?]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 4|Wikimedia Serbia launched Wiki scholar project]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 5|Wiki Club in Ohrid, Macedonia]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 6|Karvachar’s WikiClub: When getting knowledge is cool]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 7|More than 30 new courses launched in the University of the Basque Country]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 8|Review meeting on Christ Wikipedia Education Program]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 9|The Multidisciplinary Choices of High School Students: The Arabic Education Program; Wikimedia Israel]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 10|The Education Extension is being deprecated (second call)]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 11|The 2017 survey report live presentation is available for viewing]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 08:53, 1 March 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter&oldid=17757914 --> == This Month in Education: March 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 7 | Issue 3 | March 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]] | style="width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 1|Education Programs Itinerary]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 2|Animated science educational videos in Basque for secondary school student]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 3|Beirut WikiClub: Wikijourney that has enriched our experiences]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 4|Students of the Faculty of Biology in Belgrade edit Wikipedia for the first time]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 5|The role of Wikipedia in education - Examples from the Wiki Education Foundation]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 6|Multilingual resource for Open education projects]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 7|Wikipedia: examples of curricular integration in Portugal]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 8|Resources and Tips to engage with Educators]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 9|Education Session at WMCON 2018]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 10:33, 4 April 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter&oldid=17882222 --> == This Month in Education: April 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 7 | Issue 4 | April 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]] | style="width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 1|Wikimedia at the Open Educational Resources Conference 2018]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 2|Global perspectives from Western Norway]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 3|Togh's WikiClub: Wikipedia is the 8th wonder of the world!]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 4|Aboriginal Volunteers in Taiwan Shared Experience about Incubating Minority Language Wikipedia in Education Magazine]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 5|Workshops with Wiki Clubs members in the Republic of Macedonia]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 6|Celebrating Book's Day in the University of the Basque Country: is Wikipedia the largest Basque language book?]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 7|Txikipedia is born and you'll love it]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 8|Students Write Wiktionary]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 9|Presenting the Wikipedia Education Program at the Open Education Global Conference]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:33, 4 May 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter&oldid=17992472 --> == This Month in Education: May 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 4 | Issue 5 | May 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 2|Creating and reusing OERs for a Wikiversity science journalism course from Brazil]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 3|Inauguration Ceremony of Sri Jayewardenepura University Wiki Club]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 4|Wiki Education publishes evaluation of Fellows pilot]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 5|The first students of Russia with diplomas of Wikimedia and Petrozavodsk State University]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 6|Selet WikiSchool]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 8|A lofty vision for the Education Team]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 9|UNESCO Mobile Learning Week 2018, Digital Skills for Life and Work]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 21:44, 4 June 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter&oldid=18071070 --> == This Month in Education: June 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 4 | Issue 6 | June 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]] | style="width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 1|Academia and Wikipedia: the first Irish conference on Wikipedia in education]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 2|Ashesi Wiki Club: Charting the cause for Wikipedia Education Program in West Africa]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 3|Wikimedia Serbia has received a new accreditation for the Accredited seminars for teachers]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 4|Côte d'Ivoire: Wikipedia Classes 2018 are officially up and running]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 5|Basque secondary students have now better coverage for main topics thanks to the Education Program]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 6|What lecturers think about their first experience in the Basque Education Program]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 7|Education Extension scheduled deprecation]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#In the News|In the News]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 8|Wikipedia calls for participation to boost content from the continent]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 9|Wikipedia in the History Classroom]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 10|Wikipedia as a Pedagogical Tool Complicating Writing in the Technical Writing Classroom]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 11|When the World Helps Teach Your Class: Using Wikipedia to Teach Controversial Issues]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:03, 30 June 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18158878 --> == This Month in Education: July 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 4 | Issue 7 | July 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]] | style="width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 1|Wikipedia+Education Conference 2019: Community Engagement Survey]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 2|Young wikipedian: At WikiClub you get knowledge on your own will]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 3|Wikipedia in schools project at the "New Technologies in Education" Conference]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 4|Basque Education Program: 2017-2018 school year report]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#In the News|In the News]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 10|UNESCO ICT in Education Prize call for nominations opens]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 11|An educator's overview of Wikimedia (in short videos format)]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:32, 2 August 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18263925 --> == This Month in Education: August 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 4 | Issue 8 | August 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 2|The reconnection of Wikimedia Projects in Brazil]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 3|Christ (DU) students enrolls for 3rd Wikipedia certificate course]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 4|Educational wiki-master-classes at International "Selet" forum]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 5|54 students help enrich the digital Arabic content]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 6|Mapping education in the Wikimedia Movement]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 03:12, 2 September 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18288215 --> == This Month in Education: September 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 4 | Issue 9 | September 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 1|Edu Wiki Camp 2018: New Knowledge for New Generation]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 2|Education loves Monuments: A Brazilian Tale]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 3|“I have always liked literature, now I like it even more thanks to Wikipedia”. Literature is in the air of WikiClubs․]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 4|History of Wikipedia Education programme at Christ (Deemed to be University)]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 5|Preparation for the autumn educational session of Selet WikiSchool is started]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 6|Wiki Camp Doyran 2018]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 7|Wikicamp Czech Republic 2018]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 8|Wikipedia offline in rural areas of Colombia]] |- | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 9|Presentation on mapping education in the Wikimedia Movement]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 01:14, 9 October 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18394865 --> == This Month in Education: November 2018 == [[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]] <div style="text-align:left; direction:ltr;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span></div> <div style="text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;"> Volume 4 | Issue 10 | October 2018</span> </div> <span style="font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;">This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]</span> <div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;"><span style="color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;">In This Issue</span></div> {| style="width:60%;" | style="color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#From the Community|From the Community]] | style="font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;" | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 1|A new academic course featuring Wikidata at Tel Aviv University]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 2|How we included Wikipedia edition into a whole University department curriculum]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 3|Meet the first board of the UG Wikipedia & Education]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 4|The education program has kicked off as the new academic year starts]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 5|The education program has kicked off as the new academic year starts in Albania]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 6|The first Wikimedia+Education conference will happen on April 5-7 at Donostia-Saint Sebastian]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 7|Using ORES to assign articles in Basque education program]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 8|What to write for Wikipedia about? Monuments!]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 9|Wikifridays: editing Wikipedia in the university]] [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 10|Writing articles on Wikipedia is our way of leaving legacy to the next generations]] |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 05:55, 12 November 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18504430 --> == This Month in Education: November 2018 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em; direction:ltr;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 4 &bull; Issue 10 &bull; October 2018</span> ------ <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2018|Contents]] &bull; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2018/Single page|Single page view]] &bull; [[:m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ------- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/WikiEducation - Report from Wikimedians of Albanian Language UG |WikiEducation - Report from Wikimedians of Albanian Language UG]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wikipedia Education Program in ICETC 2018 , Japan |Wikipedia Education Program in ICETC 2018, Japan]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wikipedia has become the inseparable part of my daily life |Wikipedia has become the inseparable part of my daily life]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wikipedia is a world in which anyone of us has his own place |Wikipedia is a world in which anyone of us has his own place]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wiki conference for teachers in Ohrid |Wiki conference for teachers in Ohrid]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Our baby is 3! |Our baby is 3!]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/highlighting work of Sailesh Patnaik |Highlighting work of Sailesh Patnaik]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Important updates from Wikimedia Education Team |Important updates from Wikimedia Education Team]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Welcome Melissa to the Education Team |Welcome Melissa to the Education Team]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/What has the education team been up to? Year end review and updates! |What has the education team been up to? Year end review and updates! ]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 18:18, 30 November 2018 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18673623 --> == This Month in Education: January 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &bull; Issue 1 &bull; January 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019|Contents]] &bull; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &bull; [[:m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Registration for Wikimedia+Education Conference is open|Registration for Wikimedia+Education Conference is open]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Collaboration with Yerevan State University of Languages and Social Sciences after V. Brusov|Collaboration with Yerevan State University of Languages and Social Sciences after V. Brusov]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Meet the first Programs & Events Dashboard sysops|Meet the first Programs & Events Dashboard sysops]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/More than a hundred students gathered in Ecuador to edit Wikipedia|More than a hundred students gathered in Ecuador to edit Wikipedia]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Selet WikiSchool continues to teach young Tatar language Wikipedians|Selet WikiSchool continues to teach young Tatar language Wikipedians]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/The WikiClub contributes to the development of our human qualities |The WikiClub contributes to the development of our human qualities]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Third prize for Wikipedia in schools project|Third prize for Wikipedia in schools project]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/We've updated the design of Education space!|We've updated the design of Education space!]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique 2019|The WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique is back]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Wiki Advanced Training at VVIT|Wiki Advanced Training at VVIT]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/WikiEducation in Albania from WoALUG|Creating our first WikiClub]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/WikiClubs participate in edit-a-thon of cartoons|WikiClubs participate in edit-a-thon of cartoons]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Wikimedia and Education in Portugal: Where are we now|Wikimedia and Education in Portugal: Where are we now]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Wikimedia Israel: “Wikipedia Ambassadors” program for Arabic-speaking schools is launched|Wikimedia Israel: “Wikipedia Ambassadors” program for Arabic-speaking schools is launched]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 04:41, 29 January 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18816770 --> == This Month in Education: February 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 2 &#x2022; February 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia User Group Nigeria in Collaboration with AfroCrowd Celebrate Black Month History with a 2Day Editathon|Wikimedia User Group Nigeria in Collaboration with AfroCrowd Celebrate Black Month History with a 2Day Editathon]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia+Education Programme announced|Wikimedia+Education Programme announced]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikipedia in Education, Uruguay|Wikipedia in Education, Uruguay]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Oslo Metropolitan University hires “Wikipedia-assistants”|Oslo Metropolitan University hires “Wikipedia-assistants”]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Basque Education Program: 2018 in review|Basque Education Program: 2018 in review]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia Israel introduces Wikidata to Education|Wikimedia Israel introduces Wikidata to Education]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia Serbia made tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia|Wikimedia Serbia made tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Seminar on wikis in education|Seminar on wikis in education]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia, Tourism and Education: Launching project ISAL|Wikimedia, Tourism and Education: Launching project ISAL]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/The Swiss Lab: Wikipedia as a game|The Swiss Lab: Wikipedia as a game]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Meet Hungary|Meet Hungary]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 17:52, 27 February 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18903920 --> == This Month in Education: March 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 3 &#x2022; March 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Wikimedia at MLW2019|Wikimedia at UNESCO Mobile Learning Week 2019]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Wiki Education publishes evaluation on how to get subject matter experts to edit|Wiki Education publishes evaluation on how to get subject matter experts to edit]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/WikiGap brings editors to close WikiGap|WikiGap brings editors to close WikiGap and open Wiki Pathshala]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Education Mapping exercise is open for public review|Education Mapping exercise is open for public review]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Wikimedia movement projects and activities presented at EDU RUSSIA 2019 forum|Wikimedia movement projects and activities presented at EDU RUSSIA 2019 forum]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/“Edit-a-thons give us opportunity to distract from common interests” The club members write articles about New Year|“Edit-a-thons give us opportunity to distract from common interests” The club members write articles about New Year]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/WikiClub as a non-formal educational centre in rural communities|WikiClub as a non-formal educational centre in rural communities]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Mini-MWT at VVIT (Feb 2019)|Mini MediaWiki Training at VVIT]]</div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:31, 28 March 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18959709 --> == Bring your idea for Wikimedia in Education to life! Launch of the Wikimedia Education Greenhouse == {{center|'''Apply for Education Greenhouse'''}} [[File:Wikimedia Education Greenhouse logo button.svg|frameless|left|120px]] Are you passionate about open education? Do you have an idea to apply Wikimedia projects to an education initiative but don’t know where to start? Join the the Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse! It is an immersive co-learning experience that lasts 9 months and will equip you with the skills, knowledge and support you need to bring your ideas to life. You can apply as a team or as an individual, by May 12th. Find out more <big> [[:outreach:Education/Greenhouse|Education Greenhouse]].</big> For more information reachout to mguadalupe{{@}}wikimedia.org —[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 11:16, 5 April 2019 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Saileshpat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=18981257 --> == This Month in Education: April 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 4 &#x2022; April 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Launch of the Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse!|Launch of the Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse!]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Wikipedia Student Scholar|Wikipedia Student Scholar]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Wikimedia Commons: a highly hostile place for multimedia students contributions|Wikimedia Commons: a highly hostile place for multimedia students contributions]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Wikimedia+Education Conference highlights|Wikimedia+Education Conference highlights]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 01:27, 24 April 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19034809 --> == This Month in Education: May 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 5 &#x2022; May 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Education in Wales|Education in Wales]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse: Applications closed!|Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse: Applications closed!]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Meet Germany|Wiki Camp 'Meet Germany']] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Seniors also count!|Seniors also count!]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Mandatory internship at Wikimedia Armenia|Mandatory internship at Wikimedia Armenia]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Wikimedia Experience Survey by VVIT WikiConnect|Wikimedia Experience Survey by VVIT WikiConnect]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/OFWA Wikipedia Education Highlights April 2019|OFWA Wikipedia Education Highlights April 2019]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Wikimedia Education at "Wikicamp Chattogram 2019"|Wikimedia Education at "Wikicamp Chattogram 2019"]] *[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Edit a thon about flora and fauna to celebrate the earth day|Edit a thon about flora and fauna to celebrate the earth day]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:16, 29 May 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19113682 --> == This Month in Education: June 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 6 &#x2022; June 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/The introduction of the Wikipedia into the educational program has expanded|The introduction of the Wikipedia into the educational program has expanded]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Welcome Vasanthi|Welcome Vasanthi to the Education Team!]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference happening in India|Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference happening in India]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/"Won't somebody please think of the children?"|"Won't somebody please think of the children?"]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/The first Annual Report of VVIT WikiConnect|The first Annual Report of VVIT WikiConnect]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/An effective collaboration of WikiClubs and schools|An effective collaboration of WikiClubs and schools]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Wikiclassroom: New way for students' inspiration|Wikiclassroom: New way for students' inspiration]] *[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Wikipedia as a classroom activity kicks off in Kosovo|Wikipedia as a classroom activity kicks off in Kosovo]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 17:40, 6 July 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19174995 --> == This Month in Education: July 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 7 &#x2022; July 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/First WikiEducation gathering in Mexico|First WikiEducation gathering in Mexico]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/SEABA school in India has hired a Wikimedian to teach Wikimedia project in their school.|SEABA school in India has hired a Wikimedian to teach Wikimedia project in their school.]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Selet WikiSchool: results of first half of 2019|Selet WikiSchool: results of first half of 2019]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Students Use Archival Documents in a Competition, WMIL|Students Use Archival Documents in a Competition, WMIL]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Stepanakert WikiClub: Meeting with the Speaker of the Artsakh Parliament - Ashot Ghoulian|Stepanakert WikiClub: Meeting with the Speaker of the Artsakh Parliament - Ashot Ghoulian]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Collaboration with American University of Armenia|Collaboration with American University of Armenia]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Finalizing the Collaboration with Armenian Education Foundation|Finalizing the Collaboration with Armenian Education Foundation]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference Journey|Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference Journey]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 09:53, 30 July 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19221452 --> == This Month in Education: August 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 8 &#x2022; August 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/Summer WikiCamp for secondary school students 2019 in Armenia|Summer WikiCamp for secondary school students 2019 in Armenia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/Together, we can create an environment that promotes Quality Education|Together, we can create an environment that promotes Quality Education]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/International Days and pop culture motivate primary and secondary education students to write on Wikipedia and Wikidata|International Days and pop culture motivate primary and secondary education students to write on Wikipedia and Wikidata]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/Quality learning and recruiting students at Edu Wiki camp|Quality learning and recruiting students at Edu Wiki camp]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/We spend such wonderful days in WikiCamps that noone wants to return home|We spend such wonderful days in WikiCamps that noone wants to return home]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 01:00, 5 September 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19308048 --> == This Month in Education: September 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 9 &#x2022; September 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Learning history by expanding articles about novels|Learning history by expanding articles about novels]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Organizing the Education space at Wikimania 2019 - A conversation with Shani Evenstein|Organizing the Education space at Wikimania 2019 - A conversation with Shani Evenstein]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wiki Goes to School is back in three cities in Indonesia|Wiki Goes to School is back in three cities in Indonesia]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wikipedia workshop at the Summer IT School for Teachers|Wikipedia workshop at the Summer IT School for Teachers]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique 2019 is over|WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique 2019 is over]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wikipedia Education Program launched in Bangladesh|Wikipedia Education Program held at Netrokona Government College, Bangladesh]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Stepanakert WikiClub turns 4!|Stepanakert WikiClub turns 4!]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wikimedia Indonesia trained the trainers through WikiPelatih 2019|Wikimedia Indonesia trained the trainers through WikiPelatih 2019]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Students learning Wikipedia editing by attending Wikicamp at Nabran|Students learning Wikipedia editing by attending Wikicamp at Nabran]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/What is happening at Wikimedia Space?|What is happening at Wikimedia Space?]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:34, 1 October 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19418815 --> == This Month in Education: October 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 10 &#x2022; October 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikimedia Chile launched its new online course for school teachers|Wikimedia Chile launched its new online course for school teachers]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikimedia Norway is developing an education program for Sámi students and universities teaching Sámi subjects|Wikimedia Norway is developing an education program for Sámi students and universities teaching Sámi subjects]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Teachers Association of the Republic of Indonesia (PGRI) Keeps Improving Teachers’ Digital Literacy Through the Use of Wikipedia|Teachers Association of the Republic of Indonesia (PGRI) Keeps Improving Teachers’ Digital Literacy Through the Use of Wikipedia]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Lectures on Wikipedia at the the University of Warsaw|Lectures on Wikipedia at the the University of Warsaw]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikicamp in Armenia through the Eyes of Foreigners| Wikicamp in Armenia through the Eyes of Foreigners]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/New Wiki Education evaluation report of Wikidata courses published|New Wiki Education evaluation report of Wikidata courses published courses.]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Youth Salon by VVIT WikiConnect along with Wikipedia & Education user group|Wikimedia 2030 Strategoy Youth Salon by VVIT WikiConnect]] *[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the first unit of the online course|Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the first unit of the online courses.]] *[[outreach:Education/News/September 2019/What is happening at Wikimedia Space?|What is happening at Wikimedia Space?]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 08:30, 25 October 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19436525 --> == This Month in Education: November 2019 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 8 &#x2022; Issue 11 &#x2022; November 2019</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/GOES for Ghana|Wikimedians aim to make a difference in the lives of students in Ghana with support from the Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/The Third "Editatón WikiUNAM"|The Third "Editatón WikiUNAM"]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/Spreading Free Knowledge in the Land of Minangkabau|Spreading Free Knowledge in the Land of Minangkabau]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/What can we learn from the Open Education movement about attaining educational SDG in the digital age?|What can we learn from the Open Education movement about attaining educational SDG in the digital age?]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/We are highlighting the work User:Ixocactus for his contributions in Wikimedia & Education‎| We are highlighting the work of User:Ixocactus this month‎]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/“Olympic sports through history” on Serbian Wikipedia|“Olympic sports through history” on Serbian Wikipedia courses.]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/Workshops with Wiki Club members|Workshops with Wiki Club members]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/"Learning about other Culture" SEABA School, Lehragaga|"Learning about other Culture" SEABA School, Lehragaga.]] *[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/What is happening at Wikimedia Space?|What is happening at Wikimedia Space?]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 03:15, 29 November 2019 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19589002 --> == This Month in Education: January 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &bull; Issue 1 &bull; January 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019|Contents]] &bull; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &bull; [[:m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Featured education community member of January 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia & Education community member: User:Parvathisri]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Alva's college collaboration|Alva's college collaboration]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/EtnoWiki strikes again!|EtnoWiki strikes again in Poland!]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Internship program: Engaging New Volunteers to Join the Community|Internship program: Engaging New Volunteers to Join the Community]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Joint translations as language studying tool in Karvachar’s Wikiclub|Joint translations as language studying tool in Karvachar’s Wikiclub]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Selet WikiSchool introduces Wikinews and other Wikimedia projects|Selet WikiSchool introduces Wikinews and other Wikimedia projects]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Training of Trainers for Teachers in South Sulawesi Was Organized For the First Time|Training of Trainers for Teachers in South Sulawesi Was Organized For the First Time]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Twenty video tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia|Twenty video tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Updates from Wikimedia Education database edit-a-thon|Updates from Wikimedia Education database edit-a-thon]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wiki Club Ohrid grows|Wiki Club Ohrid grows]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wiki Masuk Sekolah (Wiki Goes to School) Involved the Students in Producing and Sharing Knowledge Through Wikipedia|Wiki Masuk Sekolah (Wiki Goes to School) Involved the Students in Producing and Sharing Knowledge Through Wikipedia]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wikiclassroom as a New Means of Gaining Knowledge|Wikiclassroom as a New Means of Gaining Knowledge]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the second unit of the online course|Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the second unit of the online course]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/WoALUG collaboration with educational institution BONEVET in Prishtina|WoALUG collaboration with educational institution BONEVET in Prishtina]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:26, 3 February 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19722205 --> == This Month in Education: February 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &#x2022; Issue 1 &#x2022; February 2020</span> ----<span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2020|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ----<span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Featured education community member of February 2020|Featured education community member of February 2020]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Wikipedia in Mayan Language|Wikipedia in Mayan Language]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Open Education Week - events with Wikimedia Poland|Open Education Week - events with Wikimedia Poland]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Youngest wikimedians ever editing Txikipedia|Youngest wikimedians ever editing Txikipedia]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Fashion and digital citizenship at Bath Spa University|Fashion and digital citizenship at Bath Spa University]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/WoALUG and REC Albania continue their collaboration in Wikimedia Education|WoALUG and REC Albania continue their collaboration in Wikimedia Education]] * [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Respati Project|Respati Project]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 22:06, 3 March 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19845865 --> == This Month in Education: March 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &#x2022; Issue 3 &#x2022; March 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2020|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/An Update on Wikimedia Indonesia’s Education Program|An Update on Wikimedia Indonesia’s Education Program]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Education Program in CUC Sur, Jalisco, México|Education Program in CUC Sur, Jalisco, México]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Featured education community member of March 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia & Education community member: Amber Berson]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Enhancing Armenian Wikipedia with professional articles|Enhancing Armenian Wikipedia with professional articles]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/How collaborations and perseverance contributed to an especially impactful educational project|How collaborations and perseverance contributed to an especially impactful educational project]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Wikimedia Argentina carried out the first training program in education and Human Rights for the Wikimedia Movement|Wikimedia Argentina carried out the first training program in education and Human Rights for the Wikimedia Movement]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 15:30, 30 March 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=19864438 --> == This Month in Education: April 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &#x2022; Issue 4 &#x2022; April 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2020|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/ Wikipedia Reveals New Sides of Translation|Wikipedia Reveals New Sides of Translation]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Education Webinars organized by Wikimedia México|Education Webinars organized by Wikimedia México]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Fact checking tool with library under cc-license|Fact checking tool with library under cc-license]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Fast help for schools: An interactive platform for Open Educational Resources|Fast help for schools: An interactive platform for Open Educational Resources]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Featured education community member of April 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia & Education community member]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Wiki Club Ashesi Welcomes Onboard a New Patron|Wiki Club Ashesi Welcomes Onboard a New Patron]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Wiki-school project with Wikimedia Poland|Wiki-school. A new program for teachers in Poland]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Wikimedia Serbia was organized action on improving students assignments on Wikipedia|Wikimedia Serbia was organized action on improving students assignments on Wikipedia]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 10:45, 5 May 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20024483 --> == This Month in Education: May 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &#x2022; Issue 5 &#x2022; May 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2020|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/EduWiki challenge México by Wikimedia México|EduWiki challenge México by Wikimedia México]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Featured education community member of May 2020|Featured education community member of May 2020]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Sharing Wikimedia Education Projects in the Philippines|Sharing Wikimedia Education Projects in the Philippines]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Turkish professors are giving Wikipedia assignments during Covid-19 days|Turkish professors are giving Wikipedia assignments during Covid-19 days]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Wikidata introduced in Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade|Wikidata introduced in Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Wikipedia as career counseling tool for teenagers|Wikipedia as career counseling tool for teenagers]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 16:39, 10 June 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20130275 --> == This Month in Education: June 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &#x2022; Issue 6 &#x2022; June 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2020|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Understanding Wikimedia Affiliates Evaluation in Education Report|Understanding Wikimedia Affiliates Evaluation in Education Report]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Understanding Wikimedia Community as Research Fellows|Understanding Wikimedia Community as Research Fellows]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Participants of Wiki/Ponder online workshop in Kosovo edit Wikipedia|Participants of Wiki/Ponder online workshop in Kosovo edit Wikipedia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse – Celebrating the final unit of the online course!|Wikimedia & Education Greenhouse – Celebrating the final unit of the online course!]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Wikipedia in schools competing for innovations in teaching award|Wikipedia in schools competing for innovations in teaching award]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Featured education community member of June 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia & Education community member: Oleh Kushch]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 03:54, 24 June 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20166080 --> == This Month in Education: July 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 &#x2022; Issue 7 &#x2022; July 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2020|Contents]] &#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span><div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/About Education at the Wikimedia Polska Conference|About Education at the Wikimedia Polska Conference]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/Featured education community member of July 2020|Featured education community member]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/The importance of having an Education and Human Rights Program|The importance of having an Education and Human Rights Program]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/The Welsh Wiki-Education project|The Welsh Wiki-Education project]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/Wikimedia Chile faces the challenge of mandatory virtuality|Wikimedia Chile faces the challenge of mandatory virtuality]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/WoALUG and Canadian Institute of Technology write about women in tech|WoALUG and Canadian Institute of Technology write about women in tech]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 05:27, 5 August 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20337242 --> == This Month in Education: August 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 • Issue 8 • August 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span><div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/Collaboration between Karvachar Armath laboratory and Karvachar’s Wikiclub as a new educational platform for the teenagers|Collaboration between Karvachar Armath laboratory and Karvachar’s Wikiclub as a new educational platform for the teenagers]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/Education cycle “Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: an instructional strategy for the teaching practice” organized by the Faculty of Education Sciences of the Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala and Wikimedia México.|Education cycle “Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: an instructional strategy for the teaching practice”]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/3rd edition of Wikipedia Education Program in Hebron, Palestine. (COVID-19 edition)|3rd edition of Wikipedia Education Program in Hebron, Palestine. (COVID-19 edition)]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/Introductory Wikipedia Workshop with Future Engineers: First Step of Education Program|Introductory Wikipedia Workshop with Future Engineers: First Step of Education Program]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/A picture is worth a thousand words: history students research pictures on Commons|A picture is worth a thousand words: history students research pictures on Commons]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 13:33, 23 August 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20345269 --> == This Month in Education: September 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 • Issue 9 • September 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Active autumn in the Polish wiki-education|Active autumn in the Polish wiki-education]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Cycle "Caminos y voces de la educación con Wikipedia"|Cycle "Caminos y voces de la educación con Wikipedia"]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Featured education community member of September 2020|Featured education community member of September 2020]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/The Use of Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons as tool for Module Development in the Philippines|The Use of Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons as tool for Module Development in the Philippines]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Wikimedia Indonesia Education Team Launched Their Books About Wikipedia|Wikimedia Indonesia Education Team Launched Their Books About Wikipedia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Wikimedia Serbia is organizing the first online Edu Wiki camp|Wikimedia Serbia is organizing the first online Edu Wiki camp]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 12:49, 23 September 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20463283 --> == This Month in Education: October 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 • Issue 10 • October 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Collegiate Students Fight Historical Revisionism Through Online Wikipedia Edit-a-thon|Collegiate Students Fight Historical Revisionism Through Online Wikipedia Edit-a-thon]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Digital skills using Wikimedia Art + Feminism|Digital skills using Wikimedia Art + Feminism]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Editathon “¡No se olvida!” (We don’t forget!)|Editathon “¡No se olvida!” (We don’t forget!)]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Education news bytes|Education news bytes]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Featured education community member of October 2020|Featured education community member of October 2020]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Teaching Wikipedia at University of Tromsø with support from the Sámi Parliament|Teaching Wikipedia at University of Tromsø with support from the Sámi Parliament]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 12:59, 25 October 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20514345 --> == This Month in Education: November 2020 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 9 • Issue 11 • November 2020</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span><div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Celebrating 10 years of student editing in the United States and Canada|Celebrating 10 years of student editing in the United States and Canada]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Cooperation in digital education – Wikimedia Polska conference|Cooperation in digital education – Wikimedia Polska conference]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Education Team 2020 Year End Review|Education Team 2020 Year End Review]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Featured education community members of 2020|Featured education community members of 2020]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Fifteen years of implementation of the Wikipedia Education Program in Serbia|Fifteen years of implementation of the Wikipedia Education Program in Serbia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Hablon User Group and UP Internet Freedom Network Wikipedia Edit-a-thon|Hablon User Group and UP Internet Freedom Network Wikipedia Edit-a-thon]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Online trainings on Wikipedia with high school students of Kosova|Online trainings on Wikipedia with high school students of Kosova]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Photographics and free culture training in Cameroon and Switzerland|Photographics and free culture training in Cameroon and Switzerland]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/The article about Wiki-education in the science magazine|The article about Wiki-education in the science magazine]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/The first Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia|The first Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Wikimedia Mexico’s Education Program celebrates Open Access Week 2020|Wikimedia Mexico’s Education Program celebrates Open Access Week 2020]] * [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Wikipedia as a Tool to Educate and to Be Educated|Wikipedia as a Tool to Educate and to Be Educated]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20831200 --> == This Month in Education: January 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 1 • January 2021</span> ----<span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[metawiki:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ----<span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span><div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Featured education community member of January 2021|Featured education community member of January 2021]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Open Education Global 2020 Conference|Open Education Global 2020 Conference]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia|Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert|The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines|The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa|Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:26, 23 January 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=20974633 --> == This Month in Education: January 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 1 • January 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span><div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Featured education community member of January 2021|Featured education community member of January 2021]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Open Education Global 2020 Conference|Open Education Global 2020 Conference]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia|Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert|The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines|The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines]] * [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa|Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 15:35, 24 January 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21000945 --> == This Month in Education: February 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 2 • February 2021</span> ----<span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[metawiki:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ----<span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span><div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Education news bytes|Wikimedia Education news bytes]] * [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Featured education community member of February 2021|Featured education community member of February 2021]] * [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Karvachar Wikiclub continues its activities online|Karvachar Wikiclub continues its activities online]] * [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Over 4,000 references added|Over 4,000 more references added! 1Lib1Ref campaign in Poland]] * [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Philippines Climate Change Translate-a-thon|Philippines Climate Change Translate-a-thon]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 07:33, 24 February 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21035028 --> == This Month in Education: March 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 3 • March 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/A Wikipedia Webinar for Indonesian Women Teachers|A Wikipedia Webinar for Indonesian Women Teachers]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Educational program of GLAM Macedonia|Educational program of GLAM Macedonia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Filling Gaps - the Conference about Education in Poland|Filling the Gaps & Open Education Week]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Featured education community member of March 2021|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia & Education community member: Bara'a Zama'reh]] * [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Using Wikipedia and Bridging the Gender Gap: In-Service training for Teachers in Philippines|Using Wikipedia and Bridging the Gender Gap: In-Service training for Teachers in Philippines]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 11:46, 26 March 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21247888 --> == This Month in Education: April 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 4 • April 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issuse</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Collaboration with Brusov State University|Collaboration with Brusov State University]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Editing contest "Meet Russia"|Editing contest "Meet Russia"]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Educational project: Wikipedia at the University with the University Center for Economic-Administrative Sciences|Educational project: Wikipedia at the University with the University Center for Economic-Administrative Sciences (Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas (CUCEA)) of the University of Guadalajara]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Regional Meeting of Latin American Education by the EWOC|Regional Meeting of Latin American Education by the EWOC]] * [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade have started an internship program|Students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade have started an internship program]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 22:48, 25 April 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21372399 --> == This Month in Education: May 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 5 • May 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/A Multimedia-Rich Wikiversity MOOC from Brazil|A Multimedia-Rich Wikiversity MOOC from Brazil]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Featured education community member of May 2021|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia & Education community member: Maria Weronika Kmoch]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Offline workshop with Nikola Koperniku High School in Albania|Offline workshop with Nikola Koperniku High School in Albania]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Wiki Education Program Organized with the University Students for the First time in Bangladesh|Wiki Education Program Organized with the University Students for the First time in Bangladesh]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Wikimedia Commons workshop with high school students in Kosovo; Workshop with telecommunication students at University of Prishtina|Wikimedia Commons workshop with high school students in Kosovo]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Wikipedia training for the Safeguardians of the Intangible Cultular Heritage|Wikipedia training for the Bearers of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Poland]] * [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/“Writing a Wikipedia article isn’t as difficult and unimaginable as it seems”: A case for Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine|“Writing a Wikipedia article isn’t as difficult and unimaginable as it seems”: A case for Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 17:37, 27 May 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21425406 --> == This Month in Education: June 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 6 • June 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Children writing for an encyclopedia – is it possible?|Can children write articles for a wiki encyclopedia?]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Editing contest "Biosphere reserves in the world"|Editing contest "Biosphere reserves in the world"]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Training & workshop on Wikidata and Wikimedia Commons with students from Municipal Learning Center, Gurrakoc|Training & workshop on Wikidata and Wikimedia Commons with students from Municipal Learning Center, Gurrakoc]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Wiki for Human Rights Campaign in the Philippines|Wiki for Human Rights Campaign in the Philippines]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Wiki-School program in Poland at the end of school year|Wikipedia makes children and teachers happy!]] * [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Workshop with students of Language Faculty of Philology, University of Prishtina "Hasan Prishtina"|Workshop with the students of Language Faculty of Philology, University of Prishtina "Hasan Prishtina"]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:57, 23 June 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21553405 --> == This Month in Education: July 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 7 • July 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/UHI Editathon celebrates 10 years as a university|University celebrates 10th anniversary with an Editathon]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/A paper on Students' Attitudes Towards the Use of Wikipedia|A paper on Students' Attitudes Towards the Use of Wikipedia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/Announcing the Training of Trainers program for Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom!|Announcing the Training of Trainers program for "Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom"]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/MOOC Conocimiento Abierto y Software Libre|MOOC Conocimiento Abierto y Software Libre]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/Leamos Wikipedia en Bolivia|Updates on the Leamos Wikipedia en Bolivia 2021]] * [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/E-lessons on Wikipedia from Wikimedia Polska|Virtual lessons on Wikipedia from Wikimedia Polska for schools]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:32, 3 August 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21829196 --> == This Month in Education: August 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 8 • August 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/Workshop for the Teachers from Poland|GLAM-wiki Summer in the City: Polish Teachers met in Warsaw]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/Wikipedia for School – our largest article contest for Ukrainian teachers|Wikipedia for School – our largest article contest for Ukrainian teachers]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/The importance of Social Service: Modality of educational linkage with ITESM, Querétaro campus and Wikimedia Mexico|The importance of Social Service: Modality of educational linkage with ITESM, Querétaro campus and Wikimedia Mexico]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/"Searching for the unschooling vibes around Wikipedia" at the Wikimania 2021|Wikimania 2021 and the unschooling vibes around Wikipedia by Wikimedia Polska, Education team]] * [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/Open Foundation West Africa Introduces KIWIX Offline to the National Association of Graduate Teachers|Open Foundation West Africa Introduces KIWIX Offline to the National Association of Graduate Teachers]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 13:37, 25 August 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=21914750 --> == This Month in Education: September 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 9 • September 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Cultural history on Wikipedia|Cultural history on Wikipedia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Education program in Ukraine is finally back to offline|Education program in Ukraine is finally back to offline!]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Module Distribution in the Philippines|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Module Distribution in the Philippines]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Senior Citizens WikiTown 2021: Týn nad Vltavou|Senior Citizens WikiTown 2021: Týn nad Vltavou]] * [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/WikiXLaEducación: New contest to include articles about education on Wikipedia|#WikiXLaEducación: New contest to include articles about education on Wikipedia]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:42, 26 September 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=22072998 --> == This Month in Education: October 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 10 • October 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/1st joint contest Wikimedia UG Georgia and the Ministry of Education of Georgia.|1st joint contest Wikimedia UG Georgia and the Ministry of Education of Georgia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/Promoting more inclusive and equitable support for the Wikimedia Education community|Promoting more inclusive and equitable support for the Wikimedia Education community]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/The Second Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia|The Second Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/University courses in the UK|Higher and further education courses in the UK]] * [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/Wikipedia on Silesia Cieszyn in Poland|Wikipedia on Silesia Cieszyn in Poland and in Czech Republic]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:40, 26 October 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=22208730 --> == This Month in Education: November 2021 == {| style="width:70%;" | valign="top" style="text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" |<span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 10 • Issue 11 • November 2021</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/November 2021|Contents]] • [[m:Education/Newsletter/November 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/We talked about EduWiki Outreach Collaborators and how Wikimedia Serbia played a role being a part of it|We talked about EduWiki Outreach Collaborators and how Wikimedia Serbia played a role being a part of it]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Welcome to Meta!|Welcome to Meta!]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine in 2021|Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine in 2021]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Wikipedia and Education Mentorship Program-Serbia and Philippines Partnership|Wikipedia and Education Mentorship Program-Serbia and Philippines Partnership]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Launch of the Wikimedia Research Fund!|Launch of the Wikimedia Research Fund!]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Education projects in the Land of Valencia|Education projects in the Land of Valencia]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/A Hatch-Tyap-Wikipedia In-person Training Event|A Hatch-Tyap-Wikipedia In-person Training Event]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Celebrating Sq Wikipedia Birthday with the Vasil Kamami High School students|Celebrating Sq Wikipedia Birthday with the Vasil Kamami High School students]] * [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Celebrating Wikidata with the Nikola Koperniku High School students|Celebrating Wikidata with the Nikola Koperniku High School students]] </div> |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:18, 21 November 2021 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=22360687 --> == This Month in Education: January 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span><br/> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 11 • Issue 1 • January 2022</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/30-h Wikipedia Article Writing Challenge|30-h Wikipedia Article Writing Challenge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Announcing Wiki Workshop 2022|Announcing Wiki Workshop 2022]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Final exhibition about Cieszyn Silesia region|Final exhibition about Cieszyn Silesia region]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Join us this February for the EduWiki Week|Join us this February for the EduWiki Week]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Offline Education project WikiChallenge closed its third edition|Offline Education project WikiChallenge closed its third edition]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom ToT Experience of a Filipina Wikimedian|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom ToT Experience of a Filipina Wikimedian]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Welcoming new trainers of the Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom program|Welcoming new trainers of the Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Wikimedia Israel’s education program: Students enrich Hebrew Wiktionary with Biblical expressions still in use in modern Hebrew|Wikimedia Israel’s education program: Students enrich Hebrew Wiktionary with Biblical expressions still in use in modern Hebrew]] </div></div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:28, 24 January 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=22669905 --> == This Month in Education: February 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> {{int:please-translate}} <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 11 • Issue 2 • February 2022</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</div> </div> <div style="column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Open Foundation West Africa Expands Open Movement With UHAS|Open Foundation West Africa Expands Open Movement With UHAS]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Celebrating the 18th anniversary of Ukrainian Wikipedia|Celebrating the 18th anniversary of Ukrainian Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Integrating Wikipedia in the academic curriculum in a university in Mexico|Integrating Wikipedia in the academic curriculum in a university in Mexico]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Results of "Reading Wikipedia" workshop in the summer school of Plan Ceibal in Uruguay|Results of "Reading Wikipedia" workshop in the summer school of Plan Ceibal in Uruguay]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/WikiFundi, offline editing plateform : last release notes and how-tos|WikiFundi, offline editing plateform : last release notes and how-tos]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Writing Wikipedia as an academic assignment in STEM fields|Writing Wikipedia as an academic assignment in STEM fields]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/The Learning and Connection – 1Lib1Ref with African Librarians|The Learning and Connection – 1Lib1Ref with African Librarians]] </div> </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:09, 28 February 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=22886200 --> == This Month in Education: March 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 11 • Issue 3 • March 2022</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Arte+Feminismo Pilipinas:Advocacy on Women Empowerment|Arte+Feminismo Pilipinas:Advocacy on Women Empowerment]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/The edit-a-thon on Serbian Wikipedia on the occasion of Edu Wiki Week|The edit-a-thon on Serbian Wikipedia on the occasion of Edu Wiki Week]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Call for Participation: Higher Education Survey|Call for Participation: Higher Education Survey]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Collection of Good Practices in Wikipedia Education|Collection of Good Practices in Wikipedia Education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Conversation: Open education in the Wikimedia Movement views from Latin America|Conversation: Open education in the Wikimedia Movement views from Latin America]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/EduWiki Week 2022, celebrations and learnings|EduWiki Week 2022, celebrations and learnings]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/EduWiki Week in Armenia|EduWiki Week in Armenia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Open Education Week at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León|Open Education Week at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Wikipedia + Education Talk With Leonard Hagan|Wikipedia + Education Talk With Leonard Hagan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Wikimedia Israel cooperates with Yad Vashem in developing a training course for teachers|Wikimedia Israel cooperates with Yad Vashem in developing a training course for teachers]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:57, 25 March 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23020683 --> == This Month in Education: April 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 11 • Issue 4 • April 2022</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Audio-Educational Seminar of Wikimedia Mexico|Audio-Educational Seminar of Wikimedia Mexico]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Dagbani Wikimedians using digital TV broadcast to train Wikipedia contributors in Ghana|Dagbani Wikimedians using digital TV broadcast to train Wikipedia contributors in Ghana]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Digital Education & The Open Space With Herbert Acheampong|Digital Education & The Open Space With Herbert Acheampong]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/HerStory walks as a part of edit-a-thons|HerStory walks as a part of edit-a-thons]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Join us for Wiki Workshop 2022|Join us for Wiki Workshop 2022]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/The youngest member of Tartu Wikiclub is 15-year-old student|The youngest member of Tartu Wikiclub is 15-year-old student]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 12:51, 24 April 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23177152 --> == This Month in Education: May 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 11 • Issue 5 • May 2022</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[Education/News/May 2022/Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State|Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete|Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Education in Kosovo|Education in Kosovo]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes|Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live|Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland|Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop|Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Wikibooks project in teaching|Wikibooks project in teaching]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković|Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković]] * [[Education/News/May 2022/My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah|My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education| Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:43, 1 June 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23282386 --> == This Month in Education: May 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;"> Volume 11 • Issue 5 • May 2022</span> ---- <span style="font-size:larger;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</span> ---- <span style="color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;">In This Issue</span></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State|Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete|Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Education in Kosovo|Education in Kosovo]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes|Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live|Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland|Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop|Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Wikibooks project in teaching|Wikibooks project in teaching]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković|Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković]] * [[m:Education/News/May 2022/My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah|My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education| Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:54, 1 June 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23351176 --> == This Month in Education: June 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 11 • Issue 6 • June 2022</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Black Lunch Table: Black History Month with Igbo Wikimedians User Group|Black Lunch Table: Black History Month with Igbo Wikimedians User Group]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Bolivian Teachers Welcomed Wikipedia in their Classroom|Bolivian Teachers Welcomed Wikipedia in their Classroom]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Educational program & Wikivoyage in Ukrainian University|Educational program & Wikivoyage in Ukrainian University]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/The Great Learning and Connection: Experience from AFLIA|The Great Learning and Connection: Experience from AFLIA]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/New Mexico Students Join Wikimedia Movement Through WikiForHumanRights Campaign|New Mexico Students Join Wikimedia Movement Through WikiForHumanRights Campaign]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/The school wiki-project run by a 15 year old student came to an end|The school wiki-project run by a 15 year old student came to an end]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/The students of Kadir Has University, Istanbul contribute Wikimedia projects in "Civic Responsibility Project" course|The students of Kadir Has University, Istanbul contribute Wikimedia projects in "Civic Responsibility Project" course]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wiki Trip with Vasil Kamami Wikiclub to Berat, the town of one thousand windows|Wiki Trip with Vasil Kamami Wikiclub to Berat, the town of one thousand windows]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wikiclubs in Albania|Wikiclubs in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wikidata in the classroom FGGC Bwari Experience|Wikidata in the classroom FGGC Bwari Experience]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wikipedia and Secondary Schools in Aotearoa New Zealand|Wikipedia and Secondary Schools in Aotearoa New Zealand]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/А large-scale online course for teaching beginners to work in Wikipedia has been developed in Russia|А large-scale online course for teaching beginners to work in Wikipedia has been developed in Russia]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:50, 4 July 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23406065 --> == This Month in Education: July 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 11 • Issue 7 • July 2022</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Wikimedia Chile launched a teacher guidebook with Wiki tools for Heritage Education|Wikimedia Chile launched a teacher guidebook with Wiki tools for Heritage Education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Wikimedia Serbia received a new accreditation for the professional development program|Wikimedia Serbia received a new accreditation for the professional development program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Wikimedia for Illiterate Persons|Wikimedia for Illiterate Persons]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/EtnoWiki edit-a-thon in Poland|Polish Wikipedia is enriched with new EtnoWiki content]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Career Education through Wikipedia|Career Education through Wikipedia]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:38, 3 August 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23607963 --> == This Month in Education: August 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 11 • Issue 8 • August 2022</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/The Making of a Certified Trainer of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom|The Making of a Certified Trainer of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Wikimania SDGs 2022: The Kwara Experience|Wikimania SDGs 2022: The Kwara Experience]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/An adapted Module teacher’s guide in Yoruba and English about Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom in Nigeria is now available on Commons|An adapted Module teacher’s guide in Yoruba and English about Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom in Nigeria is now available on Commons]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Kwara, Nigeria: The Trainers Experience|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Kwara, Nigeria: The Trainers Experience]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Edu Wiki Camp 2022 in Serbia: Together again|Edu Wiki Camp 2022 in Serbia: Together again]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program Nigeria: The Teacher experience |Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program Nigeria: The Teacher experience]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Wiki For Senior Citizens|Wiki For Senior Citizens]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/WikiLoves SDGs Nigeria Tours Kwara State University Malete|WikiLoves SDGs Nigeria Tours Kwara State University Malete]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Wikiteka project in Poland - summertime|Wikiteka project in Poland - summertime]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:00, 7 September 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23758285 --> == This Month in Education: September 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 11 • Issue 9 • September 2022</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/OpenEdu.ch: centralising training documents, a platform for the teachers' community in Switzerland|OpenEdu.ch: centralising training documents, a platform for the teachers' community in Switzerland]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Senior Citizens WikiTown 2022: Exploring Olomouc and its heritage|Senior Citizens WikiTown 2022: Exploring Olomouc and its heritage]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Wikimedia Research Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Wikimedia Youths Commemorate the International Youth Day 2022 in an exciting way across the globe|Wikimedia Youths Commemorate the International Youth Day 2022 in an exciting way across the globe]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Wikipedia, Education, and the Crisis of Information|Wikipedia, Education, and the Crisis of Information]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:55, 3 October 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=23879722 --> == This Month in Education: End of the 2022 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 11 • Issue 10 • October–November 2022</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/End of the 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/End of the 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/2nd Latin American Regional Meeting on Education|2nd Latin American Regional Meeting on Education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Adopting Wikipedia for Secondary School Students in Nigeria Classroom|Adopting Wikipedia for Secondary School Students in Nigeria Classroom]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Celebrating 2022 Vibrance in Kwara State University Malete|Celebrating 2022 Vibrance in Kwara State University Malete]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Celebrating the Wikipedia and Wikidata Birthday in school|Celebrating the Wikipedia and Wikidata Birthday in school]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Report on school libraries in Poland for the Wikiteka project|Report on school libraries in Poland for the Wikiteka project]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Wiki For Senior Citizens Network|Wiki For Senior Citizens Network]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/WikiEducation, Educational practices and experiences in Mexico with Wikipedia and other open resources|WikiEducation, Educational practices and experiences in Mexico with Wikipedia and other open resources]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Wikimedia & Education Workshops: a Wiki Movimento Brasil initiative|Wikimedia & Education Workshops: a Wiki Movimento Brasil initiative]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/An event at the National History Museum in Tirana|An event at the National History Museum in Tirana]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Students 24-hour competition on Wikipedia article writing|Students 24-hour competition on Wikipedia article writing]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wiki-Data a Giant at 10|Wiki-Data a Giant at 10]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/WikiGraphers: Visualizing Open Knowledge|WikiGraphers: Visualizing Open Knowledge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wikimedia Israel’s Educational Innovation: “Students Write Wikipedia” as a Matriculation-Exam Alternative|Wikimedia Israel’s Educational Innovation: “Students Write Wikipedia” as a Matriculation-Exam Alternative]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wikimedia Morocco User Group Empowers Moroccan Teachers to Use Wikipedia in the Classroom |Wikimedia Morocco User Group Empowers Moroccan Teachers to Use Wikipedia in the Classroom]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wikimedia Russia has released the "Introduction to Wikipedia" textbook|Wikimedia Russia has released the "Introduction to Wikipedia" textbook]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/“Wikipedia for School” contest was held in Ukraine for the third time|“Wikipedia for School” contest was held in Ukraine for the third time]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Announcing the Wikipedia & Education User Group Election Results|Announcing the Wikipedia & Education User Group Election Results]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 06:56, 19 December 2022 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=24091294 --> == This Month in Education: January 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 1 • January 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Educational Projects 2023-1 in Mexico|Educational Projects 2023-1 in Mexico]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Integration of Wikipedia in Ukrainian universities – teacher-led and student-led|Integration of Wikipedia in Ukrainian universities – teacher-led and student-led]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Transitional Justice in Kosovo edit-a-thon and Partnership with Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering - University of Prishtina|Transitional Justice in Kosovo edit-a-thon and Partnership with Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering - University of Prishtina]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Wikidata Citation Hunt Program for secondary school students, Dubai|Wikidata Citation Hunt Program for secondary school students, Dubai]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Wikipedia edit-a-thon with students from Art Faculty - University of Prishtina|Wikipedia edit-a-thon with students from Art Faculty - University of Prishtina]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Тeacher from Belgrade got a reward for using Wikibooks in teaching|Тeacher from Belgrade got a reward for using Wikibooks in teaching]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:32, 6 February 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=24472891 --> == This Month in Education: February 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 2 • February 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/A Strategic Direction for a Massive Online Course for Educators in Brazil|A Strategic Direction for a Massive Online Course for Educators in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Alliance Funding for Wikipedia as a school resource in Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, New Zealand|Alliance Funding for Wikipedia as a school resource in Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, New Zealand]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Call for Submissions to Wiki Workshop 2023|Call for Submissions to Wiki Workshop 2023]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Collaboration with Charles University on the creation of Czech Wikipedia started in January|Collaboration with Charles University on the creation of Czech Wikipedia started in January]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Open Education Week 2023 in the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program|Open Education Week 2023 in the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Wikiclubs with different schools in Albania |Wikiclubs with different schools in Albania]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 21:08, 12 March 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=24706239 --> == This Month in Education: March 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 3 • March 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Audio-seminar project of the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program|Audio-seminar project of the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Empowering Nigerian Female Artists: Through Art & Feminism Edith-A-Thon at KWASU Fan Club|Empowering Nigerian Female Artists: Through Art & Feminism Edith-A-Thon at KWASU Fan Club]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Exploring How Wikipedia Works|Exploring How Wikipedia Works]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Florida graduate students complete Library History edit-a-thon for credit|Florida graduate students complete Library History edit-a-thon for credit]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Improving hearing health content in Brazil|Improving hearing health content in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Media Literacy Portal to become a key resource for media education in Czech Libraries |Media Literacy Portal to become a key resource for media education in Czech Libraries]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikeys in the Albanian language|Wikeys in the Albanian language]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikimarathon is an opportunity to involve students and teachers in creating and editing articles in Wikipedia|Wikimarathon is an opportunity to involve students and teachers in creating and editing articles in Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikimedia Polska short report|Wikimedia Polska short report]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikimedia Serbia participated in the State Seminar of the The Mathematical Society of Serbia|Wikimedia Serbia participated in the State Seminar of the The Mathematical Society of Serbia]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:45, 8 April 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=24824837 --> == This Month in Education: April 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 4 • April 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Auckland Museum Alliance fund project update|Auckland Museum Alliance fund project update]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Introducing Wikipedia to Kusaal Language Teachers|Introducing Wikipedia to Kusaal Language Teachers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/KWASU Fan Club Leads the Way in 21st Century Learning with Wiki in School Program|KWASU Fan Club Leads the Way in 21st Century Learning with Wiki in School Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/On-line Courses for Educators in Poland|On-line Courses for Educators in Poland]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Online meeting of Ukrainian educators working with Wikipedia – four perspectives|Online meeting of Ukrainian educators working with Wikipedia – four perspectives]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Wikiclubs Editathon in Elbasan, Albania |Wikiclubs Editathon in Elbasan, Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Wikipedia at the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad|Wikipedia at the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Wikipedia at the University of Łódź Information Management Conference|Wikipedia at the University of Łódź Information Management Conference]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:27, 23 May 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=24999562 --> == This Month in Education: June 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 5 • June 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/Africa Day 2023: Abuja Teachers celebrates|Africa Day 2023: Abuja Teachers celebrates]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/From editing articles to civic power – Wikimedia UK's research on democracy and Wikipedia|From editing articles to civic power – Wikimedia UK's research on democracy and Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program in Yemen Brings Positive Impact to Yemeni Teachers|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program in Yemen Brings Positive Impact to Yemeni Teachers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/Using Wikipedia in education: students' and teachers' view|Using Wikipedia in education: students' and teachers' view]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/The Journey of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Lagos State|The Journey of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Lagos State]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/WMB goes to Serbia |WMB goes to Serbia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/But we don't want it to end!|But we don't want it to end!]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 08:44, 4 July 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=25147408 --> == This Month in Education: July 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 7 • July 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wikimedia Kaduna Connect Campaign|Wikimedia Kaduna Connect Campaign]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wikimedia Serbia published a paper Promoting Equity in Access to Open Knowledge: An Example of the Wikipedia Educational Program|Wikimedia Serbia published a paper Promoting Equity in Access to Open Knowledge: An Example of the Wikipedia Educational Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wikimedia and Education Kailali Multiple campus|Wikimedia and Education Kailali Multiple campus]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/WikiCamp in Istog, Kosovo: Promoting Knowledge and Nature Appreciation|WikiCamp in Istog, Kosovo: Promoting Knowledge and Nature Appreciation]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wiki at the Brazilian National History Symposium|Wiki at the Brazilian National History Symposium]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/US & Canada program reaches 100M words added |US & Canada program reaches 100M words added]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Renewed Community Wikiconference brought together experienced Wikipedians and newcomers|Renewed Community Wikiconference brought together experienced Wikipedians and newcomers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Kusaal Wikipedia Workshop at Ajumako Campus, University of Education, Winneba|Kusaal Wikipedia Workshop at Ajumako Campus, University of Education, Winneba]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Join us to celebrate the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program Graduation Ceremony|Join us to celebrate the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program Graduation Ceremony]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Activities that took place during the presentation of the WikiEducation book|Activities that took place during the presentation of the WikiEducation book. Educational practices and experiences in Mexico with Wikipedia and other open resources in Xalala, Veracruz from the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/62+ Participants Graduates from the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program|62+ Participants Graduates from the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/“Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” course launched in Ukraine|“Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” course launched in Ukraine]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/OFWA and Goethe Institute Host Wiki Skills For Librarians Workshop-Ghana|OFWA and Goethe Institute Host Wiki Skills For Librarians Workshop-Ghana]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:32, 14 August 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=25457946 --> == This Month in Education: September 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 7 • September 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Inauguration of the Kent Wiki Club at the Wikimania 2023 Conference|Inauguration of the Kent Wiki Club at the Wikimania 2023 Conference]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Letter Magic: Supercharging Your WikiEducation Programs|Letter Magic: Supercharging Your WikiEducation Programs]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Réseau @pprendre (Learning Network) : The Initiative for Educational Change in Francophone West Africa|Réseau @pprendre (Learning Network) : The Initiative for Educational Change in Francophone West Africa]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/WikiChallenge Ecoles d’Afrique closes its 5th edition with 13 winning schools|WikiChallenge Ecoles d’Afrique closes its 5th edition with 13 winning schools]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/WikiConecta: connecting Brazilian university professors and Wikimedia|WikiConecta: connecting Brazilian university professors and Wikimedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Wikimedia Germany launches interactive event series Open Source AI in Education |Wikimedia Germany launches interactive event series Open Source AI in Education]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 05:01, 10 October 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=25700976 --> == This Month in Education: October 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">Volume 12 • Issue 8 • October 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/3 Generations at Wikipedia Education Program in Türkiye|3 Generations at Wikipedia Education Program in Türkiye]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/CBSUA Launches Wiki Education in Partnership with PhilWiki Community and Bikol Wikipedia Community|CBSUA Launches Wiki Education in Partnership with PhilWiki Community and Bikol Wikipedia Community]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Celebrating Wikidata’s Birthday in Elbasan|Celebrating Wikidata’s Birthday in Elbasan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Edu Wiki Camp 2023 - together in Sremski Karlovci|Edu Wiki Camp 2023 - together in Sremski Karlovci]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/PhilWiki Community promotes language preservation and cultural heritage advocacies at ADNU|PhilWiki Community promotes language preservation and cultural heritage advocacies at ADNU]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/PunjabWiki Education Program: A Wikipedia Adventure in Punjab|PunjabWiki Education Program: A Wikipedia Adventure in Punjab]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/WikiConference on Education ignites formation of Wikimedia communities|WikiConference on Education ignites formation of Wikimedia communities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Wikimedia Estonia talked about education at CEE meeting in Tbilisi|Wikimedia Estonia talked about education at CEE meeting in Tbilisi]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Wikimedia in Brazil is going to be a book|Wikimedia in Brazil is going to be a book]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Wikipedian Editor Project: Arabic Sounds Workshop 2023|Wikipedian Editor Project: Arabic Sounds Workshop 2023]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 11:34, 8 November 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=25784366 --> == This Month in Education: November 2023 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 12 • Issue 9 • November 2023</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/4th WikiUNAM Editathon: Community knowledge strengthens education|4th WikiUNAM Editathon: Community knowledge strengthens education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Edit-a-thon at the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Santa Casa de São Paulo|Edit-a-thon at the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Santa Casa de São Paulo]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/EduWiki Nigeria Community: Embracing Digital Learning Through Wikipedia|EduWiki Nigeria Community: Embracing Digital Learning Through Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Evening Wikischool offers Czech seniors further education on Wikipedia|Evening Wikischool offers Czech seniors further education on Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Expansion of Wikipedia Education Program through Student Associations at Iranian Universities|Expansion of Wikipedia Education Program through Student Associations at Iranian Universities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Exploring Wikipedia through Wikiclubs and the Wikeys board game in Albania |Exploring Wikipedia through Wikiclubs and the Wikeys board game in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/First anniversary of the game Wikeys|First anniversary of the game Wikeys]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Involve visiting students in education programs|Involve visiting students in education programs]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Iranian Students as Wikipedians: Using Wikipedia to Teach Research Methodology and Encyclopedic Writing|Iranian Students as Wikipedians: Using Wikipedia to Teach Research Methodology and Encyclopedic Writing]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Kiwix4Schools Nigeria: Bridging Knowledge Gap through Digital Literacy|Kiwix4Schools Nigeria: Bridging Knowledge Gap through Digital Literacy]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Lire wikipedia en classe à Djougou au Bénin|Lire wikipedia en classe à Djougou au Bénin]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Tyap Wikimedians Zaria Outreach|Tyap Wikimedians Zaria Outreach]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Art Outreach at Aje Compreshensive Senior High School 1st November 2023, Lagos Mainland|Art Outreach at Aje Comprehensive Senior High School 1st November 2023, Lagos Mainland]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/PhilWiki Community holds a meet-up to advocate women empowerment|PhilWiki Community holds a meet-up to advocate women empowerment]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 08:24, 14 December 2023 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=25919737 --> == This Month in Education: January 2024 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 1 • January 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Cross-Continental Wikimedia Activities: A Dialogue between Malaysia and Estonia|Cross-Continental Wikimedia Activities: A Dialogue between Malaysia and Estonia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Czech programme SWW in 2023 – how have we managed to engage students|Czech programme SWW in 2023 – how have we managed to engage students]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Extending Updates on Wikipedia in Education – Elbasan, Albania|Extending Updates on Wikipedia in Education – Elbasan, Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Teacher’s guide – now available in Bulgarian language|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Teacher’s guide – now available in Bulgarian language]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Summer students at Auckland Museum|Summer students at Auckland Museum]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/WikiDunong: EduWiki Initiatives in the Philippines Project|WikiDunong: EduWiki Initiatives in the Philippines Project]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Wikimedia Armenia's Educational Workshops|Wikimedia Armenia's Educational Workshops]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Wikimedia Foundation publishes its first Child Rights Impact Assessment|Wikimedia Foundation publishes its first Child Rights Impact Assessment]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 10:02, 10 February 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=26091771 --> == This Month in Education: February 2024 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 2 • February 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/2 new courses in Students Write Wikipedia Starting this February|2 new courses in Students Write Wikipedia Starting this February]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/More two wiki-education partnerships|More two wiki-education partnerships]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Open Education Week 2024 in Mexico|Open Education Week 2024 in Mexico]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia, the community grows|Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia, the community grows]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Wiki Education Philippines promotes OERs utilization|Wiki Education Philippines promotes OERs utilization]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Wiki Loves Librarians, Kaduna|Wiki Loves Librarians, Kaduna]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Wiki Workshop 2024 CfP - Call for Papers Research track|Wiki Workshop 2024 CfP – Call for Papers Research track]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:37, 20 March 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=26310117 --> == This Month in Education: March 2024 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 3 • March 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Reading Wikipedia in the classroom, Kaduna|Reading Wikipedia in the classroom, Kaduna]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Reading Wikipedia in Ukraine – the course for educators is now available on demand|Reading Wikipedia in Ukraine – the course for educators is now available on demand]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Wiki Movement Brazil will once again support the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad|Wiki Movement Brazil will once again support the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Wikipedia within the Education Setting in Albania|Wikipedia within the Education Setting in Albania]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 07:28, 28 April 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=26659969 --> == This Month in Education: April 2024 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 4 • April 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/EduWiki Updates From Uganda|EduWiki Updates From Uganda]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/Good news from Bolivia: Reading Wikipedia Program continues in 2024|Good news from Bolivia: Reading Wikipedia Program continues in 2024]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/Hearing Health Project: Impactful partnership with Wiki Movement Brazil|Hearing Health Project: Impactful partnership with Wiki Movement Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/Wikimedia Spain, Amical Wikimedia and the University of Valencia develop Wikipedia educational project|Wikimedia Spain, Amical Wikimedia and the University of Valencia develop Wikipedia educational project]]</div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 03:19, 14 May 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=26698909 --> == This Month in Education: May 2024 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 5 • May 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Albania - Georgia Wikimedia Cooperation 2024|Albania - Georgia Wikimedia Cooperation 2024]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Aleksandër Xhuvani University Editathon in Elbasan|Aleksandër Xhuvani University Editathon in Elbasan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Central Bicol State University of Agriculture LitFest features translation and article writing on Wikipedia|Central Bicol State University of Agriculture LitFest features translation and article writing on Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Empowering Youth Council in Bulqiza through editathons|Empowering Youth Council in Bulqiza through editathons]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/We left a piece of our hearts at Arhavi|We left a piece of our hearts at Arhavi]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Wiki Movimento Brasil at Tech Week and Education Speaker Series |Wiki Movimento Brasil at Tech Week and Education Speaker Series]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Wikimedia MKD trains new users in collaboration with MYLA|Wikimedia MKD trains new users in collaboration with MYLA]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 13:30, 15 June 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=26854161 --> == This Month in Education: June 2024 == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 6 • June 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/From a Language Teacher to a Library Support Staff: The Wikimedia Effect|From a Language Teacher to a Library Support Staff: The Wikimedia Effect]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/5th WikiEducation 2024 Conference in Mexico|5th WikiEducation 2024 Conference in Mexico]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Lviv hosted a spring wikischool for Ukrainian high school students|Lviv hosted a spring wikischool for Ukrainian high school students]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/First class of teachers graduated from Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom 2024|First class of teachers graduated from Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom 2024]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Empowering Digital Citizenship: Unlocking the Power of Open Knowledge with Participants of the LIFE Legacy|Empowering Digital Citizenship: Unlocking the Power of Open Knowledge with Participants of the LIFE Legacy]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Wiki Movimento Brazil supports online and in-person courses and launches material to guide educators in using Wikimedia projects |Wiki Movimento Brazil supports online and in-person courses and launches material to guide educators in using Wikimedia projects]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Where to find images for free? Webinar for librarians answered many questions|Where to find images for free? Webinar for librarians answered many questions]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Wikimedia MKD and University of Goce Delchev start a mutual collaboration|Wikimedia MKD and University of Goce Delchev start a mutual collaboration]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 06:58, 9 July 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=27085892 --> == This Month in Education: August 2024 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 7 • August 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Cross-Cultural Knowledge Sharing: Wikipedia's New Frontier at University of Tehran|Cross-Cultural Knowledge Sharing: Wikipedia's New Frontier at University of Tehran]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Let's Read Wikipedia in Bolivia reaches teachers in Cochabamba|Let's Read Wikipedia in Bolivia reaches teachers in Cochabamba]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Results of the 2023 “Wikipedia for School” Contest in Ukraine|Results of the 2023 “Wikipedia for School” Contest in Ukraine]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Edu Wiki Camp in Serbia, 2024|Edu Wiki Camp in Serbia, 2024]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Wikimedia Human Rights Month this year engaged schools in large amount|Wikimedia Human Rights Month this year engaged schools in large amount]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Strengthening Education Programs at Wikimania 2024: A Global Leap in Collaborative Learning|Strengthening Education Programs at Wikimania 2024: A Global Leap in Collaborative Learning]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Wiki Education programs are featured in a scientific outreach magazine, and Wiki Movimento Brasil offers training for researchers in the Amazon|Wiki Education programs are featured in a scientific outreach magazine, and Wiki Movimento Brasil offers training for researchers in the Amazon]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Wiki Movimento Brasil aims to adapt a game about Wikipedia, organize an academic event for scientific dissemination, and host the XXXIII Wiki-Education Workshop|Wiki Movimento Brasil aims to adapt a game about Wikipedia, organize an academic event for scientific dissemination, and host the XXXIII Wiki-Education Workshop]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 13:21, 11 September 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=27310254 --> == This Month in Education: October 2024 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 8 • October 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/CBSUA Wiki Education turns 1 year|CBSUA Wiki Education turns 1 year]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/7th Senior WikiTown took place in Becov nad Teplou, Czech Republic|7th Senior WikiTown took place in Becov nad Teplou, Czech Republic]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Edit-a-thon about Modern Architecture in Kosovo|Edit-a-thon about Modern Architecture in Kosovo]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Edu_Wiki_in_South_Sudan:_Creating_a_better_future_in_education|Empowering Digital Literacy through Wikimedia in South Sudan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Many new articles and contributions in September and October for Wikimedia MKD|Many new articles and contributions in September and October for Wikimedia MKD]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/New Record: 5 Events in Municipal Library within a Month |New Record: 5 Events in Municipal Library within a Month]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Wiki-Education programs in Brazil are centered around the Wikidata and Wikisource platforms|Wiki-Education programs in Brazil are centered around the Wikidata and Wikisource platforms]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/WikiChallenge African Schools wins the “Open Pedagogy” Award 2024 from OE Global|WikiChallenge African Schools wins the “Open Pedagogy” Award 2024 from OE Global]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Wikipedia helps in improving cognitive skills|Wikipedia helps in improving cognitive skills]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Wikipedia in Graduate Studies: Expanding Research Impact|Wikipedia in Graduate Studies: Expanding Research Impact]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/WiLMa PH establishes a Wiki Club|WiLMa PH establishes a Wiki Club]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 14:56, 12 November 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=27733413 --> == This Month in Education: November 2024 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 13 • Issue 9 • November 2024</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Auckland Museum Wikipedia Student Programme|Auckland Museum Wikipedia Student Programme]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Citizenship and free knowledge on Wikipedia in Albanian language|Citizenship and free knowledge on Wikipedia in Albanian language]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Engaging students with Wikipedia and Wikidata at Hasanuddin University’s Wikimedia Week|Engaging students with Wikipedia and Wikidata at Hasanuddin University’s Wikimedia Week]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Minigrant initiative by empowering the Rrëshen community in Albania|Minigrant initiative by empowering the Rrëshen community in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikidata birthday in Albania, 2024|Wikidata birthday in Albania, 2024]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikidata birthday in School |Wikidata birthday in School]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikimedia Education Workshop at Lumbini Technological University|Wikimedia Education Workshop at Lumbini Technological University]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikimedia MKD's new collaborations and new content|Wikimedia MKD's new collaborations and new content]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Improving Historical Knowledge on Persian Wikipedia through a continuous Wikimedia Education Program: Shahid Beheshti University Wikipedia Education Program|Improving Historical Knowledge on Persian Wikipedia through a continuous Wikimedia Education Program: Shahid Beheshti University Wikipedia Education Program]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:12, 10 December 2024 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=27879342 --> == This Month in Education: January 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 1 • January 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Advancing Education Pillar in Kosovo: 2024 Journey|Advancing Education Pillar in Kosovo: 2024 Journey]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Auckland Museum Wikipedia Students Making Progress|Auckland Museum Wikipedia Students Making Progress]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Celebrating 10 Years of Wiki Education|Celebrating 10 Years of Wiki Education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Empowering Multilingual Students: Expanding Wikipedia Through Collaboration of foreign languages faculty's students of the University of Tehran|Empowering Multilingual Students: Expanding Wikipedia Through Collaboration of foreign languages faculty's students of the University of Tehran]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Ensuring accurate and authentic information with 1Lib1Ref Campaign in Anambra|Ensuring accurate and authentic information with 1Lib1Ref Campaign in Anambra]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Experiences of Wikipedia in the classroom with a gender perspective in Monterrey |Experiences of Wikipedia in the classroom with a gender perspective in Monterrey]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Fine Arts University Students exploring Wikipedia in Tirana, Albania|Fine Arts University Students exploring Wikipedia in Tirana, Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Lviv hosted Ukraine’s first student photo walk for Wikipedia|Lviv hosted Ukraine’s first student photo walk for Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Many new trained volunteers and new articles at the end of the year in Macedonia|Many new trained volunteers and new articles at the end of the year in Macedonia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Wikimedia and Scientific Events in Brazil|Wikimedia and Scientific Events in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Wiki Workshop- Call for Contributions|Wiki Workshop- Call for Contributions]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:56, 5 February 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=28111205 --> == This Month in Education: February 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 2 • February 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Activities series at the Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania|Activities series at the Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wikimedia Brazil has formed a partnership with a public policy research institute|Wikimedia Brazil has formed a partnership with a public policy research institute]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Preserving Heritage: Tuluvas Aati Month Educational Wikimedia Programs|Preserving Heritage: Tuluvas Aati Month Educational Wikimedia Programs]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Reflecting on our Past: Farewell to the Auckland Museum Summer Students|Reflecting on our Past: Farewell to the Auckland Museum Summer Students]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Successful Conclusion of the Second Phase of "Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom" in Yemen|Successful Conclusion of the Second Phase of "Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom" in Yemen]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wiki Workshop in Mitrovica |Wiki Workshop in Mitrovica]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wikimedia MKD' Education: Lots of new trained users, lots of new articles|Wikimedia MKD' Education: Lots of new trained users, lots of new articles]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wikimedia Serbia receives accreditation from the National Library of Serbia for the Wiki Senior seminar|Wikimedia Serbia receives accreditation from the National Library of Serbia for the Wiki Senior seminar]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 09:04, 12 March 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=28314249 --> == This Month in Education: March 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 3 • March 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/A Whole New World: Research Findings on New Editor Integration in Serbian Wikipedia|A Whole New World: Research Findings on New Editor Integration in Serbian Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Bolivia: a new round of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia|Bolivia: a new round of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Faculty of Social Sciences Workshop in Albania|Faculty of Social Sciences Workshop in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Lots of contributions and trainings as part of Wikimedia MKD's Education Programme|Lots of contributions and trainings as part of Wikimedia MKD's Education Programme]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Wikimedia organized multiple events of science and education in Brazil during the month of March|Wikimedia organized multiple events of science and education in Brazil during the month of March]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:04, 10 April 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=28458563 --> == This Month in Education: April 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 4 • April 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Ceremony of giving certificates and awarding the winners of the edit-a-thon: Meet Slovenia|Ceremony of giving certificates and awarding the winners of the edit-a-thon: Meet Slovenia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/The Workshops Wikimedia & Education are back in Brazil|The Workshops Wikimedia & Education are back in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/EduWiki Nigeria: Advancing Digital Literacy in Schools|EduWiki Nigeria: Advancing Digital Literacy in Schools]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Empowering the Next Generation: Wikidata Training at Federal Government Boys College, FGBC Abuja|Empowering the Next Generation: Wikidata Training at Federal Government Boys College, FGBC Abuja]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Final Wikipedia project with Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania|Final Wikipedia project with Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Teachers who graduated from the Leamos Wikipedia program in Bolivia become mentors for their colleagues |Teachers who graduated from the Leamos Wikipedia program in Bolivia become mentors for their colleagues]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Wikivoyage in Has region, Northern Albania|Wikivoyage in Has region, Northern Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Wikivoyage workshop in Bulqiza|Wikivoyage workshop in Bulqiza]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:48, 10 May 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=28656387 --> == This Month in Education: May 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 5 • May 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Journalism students at Aleksandër Xhuvani University explore Wikipedia in Albania|Journalism students at Aleksandër Xhuvani University explore Wikipedia in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Reviewing pending articles editathon with high school students in Albania|Reviewing pending articles editathon with high school students in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Several educational workshops to promote science on Wiki were held in Brazil in the month of May|Several educational workshops to promote science on Wiki were held in Brazil in the month of May]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Simón Bolívar Teacher Training College joins the Let's Read Wikipedia Program|Simón Bolívar Teacher Training College joins the Let's Read Wikipedia Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Students become Editors: Wikimedia Chile launches Latin America's first Vikidia Workshop|Students become Editors: Wikimedia Chile launches Latin America's first Vikidia Workshop]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/The DemocraTICon competition was held, this year for the first time with a discipline focused on Wikipedia |The DemocraTICon competition was held, this year for the first time with a discipline focused on Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Wikimedia MKD's "Lajka" workshop in Skopje|Wikimedia MKD's "Lajka" workshop in Skopje]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:57, 28 May 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=28771448 --> == This Month in Education: June 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 6 • June 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Albanian high school students at the Wikimedia Youth Conference 2025 in Prague|Albanian high school students at the Wikimedia Youth Conference 2025 in Prague]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Bolivia has 20 new teachers graduated from the Let's Read Wikipedia in the Classroom program|Bolivia has 20 new teachers graduated from the Let's Read Wikipedia in the Classroom program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Brazil was present at the EduWiki Conference 2025 in Bogota|Brazil was present at the EduWiki Conference 2025 in Bogota]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Does Wikipedia has future in the times of Chat-GPT|Does Wikipedia has future in the times of Chat-GPT]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/PhilWiki Community promotes accessible multilingual stories for children|PhilWiki Community promotes accessible multilingual stories for children]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Reading and Editing Wikipedia in a Bangladeshi College|Reading and Editing Wikipedia in a Bangladeshi College]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Wikimedia MKD's Workshops in June|Wikimedia MKD's Workshops in June]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Wikipedia meets 2500 Ukrainian educators at the country’s biggest education festival|Wikipedia meets 2500 Ukrainian educators at the country’s biggest education festival]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 07:18, 27 June 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=28903832 --> == This Month in Education: July 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 7 • July 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Crafting Impactful Education Newsletters: Shared Insights from EduWiki 2025|Crafting Impactful Education Newsletters: Shared Insights from EduWiki 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Educational Outreach with Youth Centers in Albania|Educational Outreach with Youth Centers in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Discussing educational resources at WikiCon Brasil 2025|Discussing educational resources at WikiCon Brasil 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Enhancing Mobile-Friendly Contribution in Wikimedia Education Programs|Enhancing Mobile-Friendly Contribution in Wikimedia Education Programs]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/The second semester of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia with challenges and learning|The second semester of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia with challenges and learning]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/When Travel Fails, Learning Continues: A Reflection from EduWiki 2025 |When Travel Fails, Learning Continues: A Reflection from EduWiki 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Wiki club in Kumanovo - the newest Wiki club of Wikimedia MKD|Wiki club in Kumanovo - the newest Wiki club of Wikimedia MKD]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Jaroslav Mašek: How KISK FF MU students used AI to write Wikipedia|Jaroslav Mašek: How KISK FF MU students used AI to write Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Various programmes up and rolling with Charles University Prague|Various programmes up and rolling with Charles University Prague]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 03:00, 1 August 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29005310 --> == This Month in Education: August 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 8 • August 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Bootcamp Wikipedia in Classroom|Bootcamp Wikipedia in Classroom]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Brazil launches campaign about Open Science on Wiki|Brazil launches campaign about Open Science on Wiki]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Breaking Barriers: Yoruba Wikipedia Fan Club Offa's Historic Wins|Breaking Barriers: Yoruba Wikipedia Fan Club Offa's Historic Wins]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Emerging Voices in Free Knowledge: The Journey of Wiki Club SATI|Emerging Voices in Free Knowledge: The Journey of Wiki Club SATI]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/From a Curious Student to a Wikimedia Leader|From a Curious Student to a Wikimedia Leader]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/From webinars to conferences: Wikimedia Ukraine’s approach to events for educators|From webinars to conferences: Wikimedia Ukraine’s approach to events for educators]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Higher education with Wikipedia in Spain|Higher education with Wikipedia in Spain]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Scientific Contribution from Serbia: Wikipedia in Education Research Published in a Prestigious Journal|Scientific Contribution from Serbia: Wikipedia in Education Research Published in a Prestigious Journal]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Teachers with Wikipedia. What if we create a Spanish-speaking collaboration network|Teachers with Wikipedia. What if we create a Spanish-speaking collaboration network]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/The brains behind Wikipedia|The brains behind Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Why EduWiki Should Be Considered by Policymakers|Why EduWiki Should Be Considered by Policymakers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wikimedia Chile in Visviri: Free knowledge and education at Chile’s starting point|Wikimedia Chile in Visviri: Free knowledge and education at Chile’s starting point]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wikipedia as a tool presented at Media Education Summer School for Teachers|Wikipedia as a tool presented at Media Education Summer School for Teachers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wikipedia vs AI at La Trobe University|Wikipedia vs AI at La Trobe University]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/St Aloysius University – Wikipedia training session for newcomers|St Aloysius University – Wikipedia training session for newcomers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wiki Loves Academics, WUGN Kaduna|Wiki Loves Academics, WUGN Kaduna]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/In Just 3 Minutes: The Power of Wiki Education|In Just 3 Minutes: The Power of Wiki Education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Sensing Cebu: Fieldnotes of an Academic as a Wiki Volunteer|Sensing Cebu: Fieldnotes of an Academic as a Wiki Volunteer]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:16, 2 September 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29205629 --> == This Month in Education: September 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 9 • September 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Brazil organizes seminar to discuss open science and scientific dissemination|Brazil organizes seminar to discuss open science and scientific dissemination]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/CBSUA Recognizes Wiki Training Completers, Awards Feminism & Folklore 2025 Winners|CBSUA Recognizes Wiki Training Completers, Awards Feminism & Folklore 2025 Winners]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/2nd International Conference on Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures Mexico 2025|2nd International Conference on Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures Mexico 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Accredited seminar for teachers in Veliko Gradište|Accredited seminar for teachers in Veliko Gradište]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Breaking Barriers, Why open Knowledge matters|Breaking Barriers, Why open Knowledge matters]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Cross-Continental Knowledge Exchange: Offa Youth Impact Initiative and St Aloysius University in 3D Education Outreach |Cross-Continental Knowledge Exchange: Offa Youth Impact Initiative and St Aloysius University in 3D Education Outreach]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Igbo Language Audio Project in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club IMSU & Alvan|Igbo Language Audio Project in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club IMSU & Alvan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Let's Read Wikipedia reached teachers of the Weenhayek indigenous nation in Bolivia|Let's Read Wikipedia reached teachers of the Weenhayek indigenous nation in Bolivia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Monográfico sobre Wikipedia en el aula, Revista Docere|Monograph on Wikipedia in the classroom, Docere Magazine]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/The Third Training Course of the “Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” Program in Jordan|The Third Training Course of the “Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” Program in Jordan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/The Ukrainian Educators’ Wikimedia Conference 2025|The Ukrainian Educators’ Wikimedia Conference 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Wikimedia MKD's edit-a-thon: Lakes|Wikimedia MKD's edit-a-thon: Lakes]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Cultura libre en las aulas|Free culture in the classroom]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki clubs|Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki clubs]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:09, 2 October 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29344785 --> == This Month in Education: October 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 10 • October 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/"WikiDonne Internship: Wikimedia Platforms for Open Education and Inclusive Culture!" winner at the Open Education Awards 2025|"WikiDonne Internship: Wikimedia Platforms for Open Education and Inclusive Culture!" winner at the Open Education Awards 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/A Proud Chapter in My Wikimedia Journey 🇳🇬: From Editor to Organizer|A Proud Chapter in My Wikimedia Journey 🇳🇬: From Editor to Organizer]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Debating open science and scientific dissemination in Brazil|Debating open science and scientific dissemination in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Enhancing Academic Articles on Wikipedia with the State University of Jakarta|Enhancing Academic Articles on Wikipedia with the State University of Jakarta]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/India’s Students and Educators Lead the Way in the Wiki Science Competition 2025|India’s Students and Educators Lead the Way in the Wiki Science Competition 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/JDACA & Amman Arab University|JDACA & Amman Arab University]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/New starting page for Wikipedia users had been launched in September|New starting page for Wikipedia users had been launched in September]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Teaching Evidence Synthesis Automation with the Wikipedia–Kaggle Dataset|Teaching Evidence Synthesis Automation with the Wikipedia–Kaggle Dataset]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Wikimedia MKD’s Education Program activities for October|Wikimedia MKD’s Education Program activities for October]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Wikimedia Serbia prepares eight annual Edu Wiki camp|Wikimedia Serbia prepares eight annual Edu Wiki camp]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Wikivoyage editathon in Peshkopia, Albania|Wikivoyage editathon in Peshkopia, Albania]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 06:04, 2 November 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29511272 --> == This Month in Education: November 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 11 • November 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Auckland Museum's Wiki Summer Student Programme is back for 2025 & 2026|Auckland Museum's Wiki Summer Student Programme is back for 2025 & 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Edu Wiki camp 2025 in Belgrade, Serbia|Edu Wiki camp 2025 in Belgrade, Serbia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wikidata na Escola: estudantes da zona rural de Minas Gerais contribuem com dados sobre mulheres negras brasileiras|Wikidata na Escola: estudantes da zona rural de Minas Gerais contribuem com dados sobre mulheres negras brasileiras]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/190 students from Oteitza Lizeoa create 48 articles on the history of the Basque Country for Txikipedia in one day|190 students from Oteitza Lizeoa create 48 articles on the history of the Basque Country for Txikipedia in one day]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/2nd International Congress Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures – WECUDI|2nd International Congress Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures – WECUDI]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Africa and Proud Leads Wiki Classroom Project Across Three Nigerian States|Africa and Proud Leads Wiki Classroom Project Across Three Nigerian States]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/November 2025November 2025/Annual Czech Wiki Conference took place on Saturday, Nov 8th|November 2025November 2025/Annual Czech Wiki Conference took place on Saturday, Nov 8th]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/EduWiki Meetup at GLAM Wiki Conference 2025|EduWiki Meetup at GLAM Wiki Conference 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Highly productive autumn education activities in Macedonia|Highly productive autumn education activities in Macedonia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Kannada Wikipedia Asian Month 2025: Edit-a-thon & Workshop Highlights from Loyola College, Karnataka|Kannada Wikipedia Asian Month 2025: Edit-a-thon & Workshop Highlights from Loyola College, Karnataka]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Kosovo Wikivoyage Editathons in Gjakova and Krusha e Madhe|Kosovo Wikivoyage Editathons in Gjakova and Krusha e Madhe]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Ukrainian educators create open lesson plans based on the «Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom» course|Ukrainian educators create open lesson plans based on the «Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom» course]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/United Architects of the Philippines Student Auxiliary – University of Nueva Caceres joins Wikisource Training|United Architects of the Philippines Student Auxiliary – University of Nueva Caceres joins Wikisource Training]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Videos on Teaching Experiences with Wikipedia, Wikidata, Commons, and OSM|Videos on Teaching Experiences with Wikipedia, Wikidata, Commons, and OSM]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wiki as a tool for technological empowerment of indigenous knowledge|Wiki as a tool for technological empowerment of indigenous knowledge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wiki Science Competition in Albania and Kosovo|Wiki Science Competition in Albania and Kosovo]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wiki Workshop 2026 Call for Contributions|Wiki Workshop 2026 Call for Contributions]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wikipedia Contribution with Faculty of Mathematical and Natural Sciences Students in Kosovo|Wikipedia Contribution with Faculty of Mathematical and Natural Sciences Students in Kosovo]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Impact of Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki Clubs in Growth of Wikimedia User Group Rwanda Community|Impact of Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki Clubs in Growth of Wikimedia User Group Rwanda Community]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 13:46, 30 November 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29716809 --> == This Month in Education: December 2025 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 14 • Issue 12 • December 2025</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/December 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/December 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/WikiLatih Wiktionary with the Goethe-Institut: Strengthening the Digital Presence of Indonesia’s Local Languages|WikiLatih Wiktionary with the Goethe-Institut: Strengthening the Digital Presence of Indonesia’s Local Languages]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Wiki in schools - Architecture and Open Heritage|Wiki in schools - Architecture and Open Heritage]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/What are the challenges and opportunities in scientific dissemination? Reflecting on the topic in the Brazilian context|What are the challenges and opportunities in scientific dissemination? Reflecting on the topic in the Brazilian context]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/WikipediaxAI: Wikipedia, AI, and the future of knowledge|WikipediaxAI: Wikipedia, AI, and the future of knowledge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Wikipedia at University Another year of working alongside higher education institutions in Argentina|Wikipedia at University Another year of working alongside higher education institutions in Argentina]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/WAM - Tulu Edit-a-thon & Workshop in St Aloysius University |WAM - Tulu Edit-a-thon & Workshop in St Aloysius University]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Visibilizando memórias negras: estudantes da UFRGS ampliam a Wikipédia com foco na imprensa e no associativismo pós-abolição|Visibilizando memórias negras: estudantes da UFRGS ampliam a Wikipédia com foco na imprensa e no associativismo pós-abolição]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Transforming Education Through Wikimedia in Kosovo: 2025|Transforming Education Through Wikimedia in Kosovo: 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/New WikiClubs and educational partnership in Albania|New WikiClubs and educational partnership in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/New WikiClub with the Dibra Youth Center in Albania|New WikiClub with the Dibra Youth Center in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Landmark Educational Initiatives and Wikimedia Programs Transform Learning in 2025|Landmark Educational Initiatives and Wikimedia Programs Transform Learning in 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Knowledge in the Digital Age: A WMUK Collaborative Workshop|Knowledge in the Digital Age: A WMUK Collaborative Workshop]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 14:22, 17 December 2025 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29814101 --> == This Month in Education: January 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 1 • January 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Strengthening Wikimedia Education and Digital Literacy in 2026|Strengthening Wikimedia Education and Digital Literacy in 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Dzongkha Wikipedia Education Program in Bhutan|Dzongkha Wikipedia Education Program in Bhutan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Wikipedia Education Program - Train The Trainer in Nepal|Wikipedia Education Program – Train The Trainer in Nepal]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Wikipedia 25 celebration in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club Alvan and IMSU|Wikipedia 25 celebration in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club Alvan and IMSU]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/CBSUA boosts Open Knowledge and Local Culture through expanded Wiki Education Program|CBSUA boosts Open Knowledge and Local Culture through expanded Wiki Education Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/WikiChallenge African Schools: Young voices, real impact, and continued (reasonable) growth|WikiChallenge African Schools: Young voices, real impact, and continued (reasonable) growth]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Updates on Auckland Museum Summer Student Programme|Updates on Auckland Museum Summer Student Programme]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Stronger and bolder Wikiforhumanrights 2025 in Anambra Network|Stronger and bolder Wikiforhumanrights 2025 in Anambra Network]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Official Opening of IFAK Secondary School Wiki Club: Engaging Youth in Learning Through Open Knowledge|Official Opening of IFAK Secondary School Wiki Club: Engaging Youth in Learning Through Open Knowledge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Greetings from the Jeronim de Rada WikiClub in Elbasan, Albania, for Christmas 2025|Greetings from the Jeronim de Rada WikiClub in Elbasan, Albania, for Christmas 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Great and productive final activities of 2025 Wikimedia MKD education programme|Great and productive final activities of 2025 Wikimedia MKD education programme]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Envisioning an Open Future together - WikiForAll|Envisioning an Open Future together – WikiForAll]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/A look back: reviewing the main education activities in Brazil in 2025|A look back: reviewing the main education activities in Brazil in 2025]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/A 147-Year-Old Institution Celebrates 25 Years of Wikipedia: St Aloysius University and the Spirit of Open Knowledge|A 147-Year-Old Institution Celebrates 25 Years of Wikipedia: St Aloysius University and the Spirit of Open Knowledge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/¡Celebrando 25 años de conocimiento libre! El Proyecto "25x25" llega a las aulas de Córdoba, Argentina|Celebrating 25 years of free knowledge! The '25x25' Project reaches the classrooms of Córdoba, Argentina]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/A atuação em rede da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora para a difusão do conhecimento livre na Wikipédia|The collaborative efforts of the Federal University of Juiz de Fora for the dissemination of free knowledge on Wikipedia]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:26, 28 January 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=29951116 --> == This Month in Education: February 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 2 • February 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Cairo University Spanish Language Volunteers document Madrid’s Historic and Contemporary Palaces|Cairo University Spanish Language Volunteers document Madrid’s Historic and Contemporary Palaces]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Celebrating 25 Years of Wikipedia in Uzbekistan|Celebrating 25 Years of Wikipedia in Uzbekistan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Encontro da Rede Latino Americana de Inteligência Artificial Feminista: construindo futuros possíveis|Meeting of the Latin American Network of Feminist Artificial Intelligence: building possible futures]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Farewelling the Auckland Museum Summer Students|Farewelling the Auckland Museum Summer Students]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Inclusive Climate Learning with Wikimedia Reaches Special School in Kumasi|Inclusive Climate Learning with Wikimedia Reaches Special School in Kumasi]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Introducing Wikimedia in Academic curriculum for students of higher education in universities of Telangana |Introducing Wikimedia in Academic curriculum for students of higher education in universities of Telangana]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Learning from Finland: Edit-a-thon on Finnish Education set to take place in Belgrade|Learning from Finland: Edit-a-thon on Finnish Education set to take place in Belgrade]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Library of IME-USP Workshop: Edits in History of Mathematics|Library of IME-USP Workshop: Edits in History of Mathematics]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/LitFest 2026: Room to Dream to amplify local voices across Wikimedia|LitFest 2026: Room to Dream to amplify local voices across Wikimedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/New online workshops for the German language Wikipedia|New online workshops for the German language Wikipedia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Road to Wiki Cohort 1: Building India's Next Generation of Wikimedia Technical Contributors|Road to Wiki Cohort 1: Building India's Next Generation of Wikimedia Technical Contributors]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/The history of the Wikimedia movement in a Brazil: a book about stories and projects|The history of the Wikimedia movement in a Brazil: a book about stories and projects]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Club Federal Government Boys College Celebrates Mother Tongue Day|Wiki Club Federal Government Boys College Celebrates Mother Tongue Day]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Club Minalabac joins Freedom to Read 2026: One World, Many Languages|Wiki Club Minalabac joins Freedom to Read 2026: One World, Many Languages]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Love Folklore Photowalk at Khajuraho Dance Festival 2026|Wiki Love Folklore Photowalk at Khajuraho Dance Festival 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Loves Fish Workshop Empowers Students to Document Coastal Biodiversity|Wiki Loves Fish Workshop Empowers Students to Document Coastal Biodiversity]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/WikiCendekia 2026: Insights from our training of admins in Indonesia|WikiCendekia 2026: Insights from our training of admins in Indonesia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wikimedia MKD's activities- new wiki club and a lots of new training workshops|Wikimedia MKD's activities- new wiki club and a lots of new training workshops]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/WikiPatrimoine Senghor : Valorisation du patrimoine culturel africain à l'Université Senghor|WikiPatrimoine Senghor : Valuation of African cultural heritage at the University Senghor]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wikipedia Turns 25: Young Voices, Big Future|Wikipedia Turns 25: Young Voices, Big Future]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 11:55, 3 March 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30155806 --> == This Month in Education: March 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 3 • March 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Advancing 21st-Century Education: Proposal to Establish the Yorùbá Wikipedia Fan Club at Arolu College of Education, Ilemona|Advancing 21st-Century Education: Proposal to Establish the Yorùbá Wikipedia Fan Club at Arolu College of Education, Ilemona]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Awareness Programme on Language and Culture Protection by KWUG|Awareness Programme on Language and Culture Protection by KWUG]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Teachers from Various Institutions in Rio de Janeiro Explore Wikipedia as a Means of Preserving Memory and Checking Sources|Teachers from Various Institutions in Rio de Janeiro Explore Wikipedia as a Means of Preserving Memory and Checking Sources]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Edu Wiki Nigeria Co-Founder Facilitates Textbook Donation to AHAJAS Integrated School, Gombe|Edu Wiki Nigeria Co-Founder Facilitates Textbook Donation to AHAJAS Integrated School, Gombe]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Inside Wikimedia Ukraine's education program|Inside Wikimedia Ukraine's education program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Karavali Wikimedians at Mangaluru Design Summit 2026|Karavali Wikimedians at Mangaluru Design Summit 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/One School, One Article Campaign Wrap Up|One School, One Article Campaign Wrap Up]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Seeds of Knowledge: A Wiki Project that Sparked a Community at ADUN|Seeds of Knowledge: A Wiki Project that Sparked a Community at ADUN]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Student workshops at Serbian Universities: enriching Wikipedia with topics on culture and technology|Student workshops at Serbian Universities: enriching Wikipedia with topics on culture and technology]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/The Open Knowledge Alliance: Wikimedia and Libraries|The Open Knowledge Alliance: Wikimedia and Libraries]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Wikimedia CR published updated guide for beginners|Wikimedia CR published updated guide for beginners]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Wikimedia goes back to the classroom in Brazil|Wikimedia goes back to the classroom in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Workshop on Feminism and Folklore 2026 by Wiki Club SATI|Workshop on Feminism and Folklore 2026 by Wiki Club SATI]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/“Wikimedia MKD in Action: Teacher Conferences and Education Activities|“Wikimedia MKD in Action: Teacher Conferences and Education Activities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Wikipedia & Libraries: Building New Contributors|Wikipedia & Libraries: Building New Contributors]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 10:21, 1 April 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30317659 --> == This Month in Education: April 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 4 • April 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Empowering Knowledge: Wikimedia MKD Education Update|Empowering Knowledge: Wikimedia MKD Education Update]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/WikiScholar: A School-Level Initiative to Promote Free Knowledge in Bangladesh|WikiScholar: A School-Level Initiative to Promote Free Knowledge in Bangladesh]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Wikipedia for School 2025–2026: A Competition That Continued Despite Frost, Power Outages, and War|Wikipedia for School 2025–2026: A Competition That Continued Despite Frost, Power Outages, and War]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Wikimedia UK and Thoughtful delivery new media literacy teacher training course|Wikimedia UK and Thoughtful delivery new media literacy teacher training course]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Wikimedia CR supporting SDG's in Czech schools|Wikimedia CR supporting SDG's in Czech schools]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/University Students’ Mandatory Internships at Wikimedia Armenia|University Students’ Mandatory Internships at Wikimedia Armenia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Third year of collaboration with Aleksandër Xhuvani University in Elbasan, Albania|Third year of collaboration with Aleksandër Xhuvani University in Elbasan, Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Students Discover Open Source and Learn Wikipedia and Wikidata Skills for the First Time in Zarqa, Jordan|Students Discover Open Source and Learn Wikipedia and Wikidata Skills for the First Time in Zarqa, Jordan]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Leveraging on Wikipedia as a tool for curbing Health Misinformation and Disinformation in Akwa Ibom and Rivers State, Nigeria|Leveraging on Wikipedia as a tool for curbing Health Misinformation and Disinformation in Akwa Ibom and Rivers State, Nigeria]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Governance and Public Knowledge: Wikipedia as a Learning Tool in Sustainability Education through UNESCO Designated Sites|Governance and Public Knowledge: Wikipedia as a Learning Tool in Sustainability Education through UNESCO Designated Sites]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/A month full of encounters with students in Brazil|A month full of encounters with students in Brazil]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:01, 27 April 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30406002 --> == This Month in Education: May 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 5 • May 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Teaching innovation with Wikimedia. Shared experiences in Spanish Universities|Teaching innovation with Wikimedia. Shared experiences in Spanish Universities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Editing Wikipedia with Viktor Hygo High School in Albania|Editing Wikipedia with Viktor Hygo High School in Albania]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Debating free license in Brazil|Debating free license in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Microclimatic Explainers: A short-form media approach to build micro-level environmental awareness in India|Microclimatic Explainers: A short-form media approach to build micro-level environmental awareness in India]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Ukraine publishes the first academic collection of papers on Wikipedia and Wikimedia Projects|Ukraine publishes the first academic collection of papers on Wikipedia and Wikimedia Projects]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wiki Digital Youth Club Launches in Tanzania: Youth Build Digital Skills Through Competitive Quest Challenges|Wiki Digital Youth Club Launches in Tanzania: Youth Build Digital Skills Through Competitive Quest Challenges]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wiki Youth Participation in Building Rwanda’s Open Knowledge Ecosystem|Wiki Youth Participation in Building Rwanda’s Open Knowledge Ecosystem]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wikimedia Digi-Youth Club in Nigeria|Wikimedia Digi-Youth Club in Nigeria]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wikimedia MKD's Education News & Activities|Wikimedia MKD's Education News & Activities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wikipedia Serbia's interns and Wiki Ambassadors provide crucial support towards end of the school year|Wikipedia Serbia's interns and Wiki Ambassadors provide crucial support towards end of the school year]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:53, 1 June 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30604297 --> == This Month in Education: June 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 6 • June 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Wikipedia Editathon at Dinajpur Govt. College: Empowering Graduate Students in the Open Knowledge Movement|Wikipedia Editathon at Dinajpur Govt. College: Empowering Graduate Students in the Open Knowledge Movement]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Wikimedia Serbia prepares for Edu Wiki camp 2026|Wikimedia Serbia prepares for Edu Wiki camp 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Wiki Digi-Youth Clubs pilot explores challenge-based learning across three countries|Wiki Digi-Youth Clubs pilot explores challenge-based learning across three countries]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Why the EduWiki Hub Starter Kit Matters for the Future of Education|Why the EduWiki Hub Starter Kit Matters for the Future of Education]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Portuguese Universities adopt free knowledge tools: Wikipedia is the favorite|Portuguese Universities adopt free knowledge tools: Wikipedia is the favorite]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Translating on Wikipedia used as extra – credit assignment in University of Prishtina, Kosovo|Translating on Wikipedia used as extra – credit assignment in University of Prishtina, Kosovo]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Strengthening Wikimedia Education Through Community Learning and Digital Literacy Initiatives|Strengthening Wikimedia Education Through Community Learning and Digital Literacy Initiatives]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Small Group, Big Impact: Building Skills Through the Wikimedia Volunteer Focus Group in Botswana|Small Group, Big Impact: Building Skills Through the Wikimedia Volunteer Focus Group in Botswana]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/"25x25 Project – Celebrating Wikipedia" in Córdoba, Argentina|"25x25 Project – Celebrating Wikipedia" in Córdoba, Argentina]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Mapping and gathering educational activities on Wiki in Brazilian universities|Mapping and gathering educational activities on Wiki in Brazilian universities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Growing Wiki Education in the Philippines: Highlights from Bikol WikiConference 2026|Growing Wiki Education in the Philippines: Highlights from Bikol WikiConference 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/From Mentee to Builder: Six Months in the EduWiki Hub Mentorship Program|From Mentee to Builder: Six Months in the EduWiki Hub Mentorship Program]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/EduWiki Hub publishes its first Community Newsletter|EduWiki Hub publishes its first Community Newsletter]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Click, Capture, and Contribute: Scaling Open Knowledge Through Mobile Photography|Click, Capture, and Contribute: Scaling Open Knowledge Through Mobile Photography]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Education in Action: Limkokwing School Adoption Program 2026 and Wikimedia Learning Outcomes|Education in Action: Limkokwing School Adoption Program 2026 and Wikimedia Learning Outcomes]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Impact of Wiki Digi youth Clubs initiative in education of Rwanda|Impact of Wiki Digi youth Clubs initiative in education of Rwanda]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 04:15, 28 June 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30725833 --> == This Month in Education: July 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 7 • July 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Practical Wikipedia Training for Teachers Held in Tetovo, Macedonia|Practical Wikipedia Training for Teachers Held in Tetovo, Macedonia]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Wikimedia Ukraine at the Teachers of the Future Festival|Wikimedia Ukraine at the Teachers of the Future Festival]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Six Months of Growth, Learning, and Impact: My Journey as an EduWiki Mentor|Six Months of Growth, Learning, and Impact: My Journey as an EduWiki Mentor]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/PhilWiki Community pays homage to Antoine de Saint-Exupéry at Wikimania Paris 2026|PhilWiki Community pays homage to Antoine de Saint-Exupéry at Wikimania Paris 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Google25 Expands Tamil Wikipedia Community|Google25 Expands Tamil Wikipedia Community]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Edu Wiki camp gathers Serbian youth around the topic of open knowledge|Edu Wiki camp gathers Serbian youth around the topic of open knowledge]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Cátedra Glaciares: A Collaborative Experience for the Study and Conservation of Colombia’s Cryosphere|Cátedra Glaciares: A Collaborative Experience for the Study and Conservation of Colombia’s Cryosphere]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Continuing Wiki education partnerships in Brazil|Continuing Wiki education partnerships in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/Building EduWiki in Albania: From school outreach to student contributions in Wikimedia projects|Building EduWiki in Albania: From school outreach to student contributions in Wikimedia projects]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/1Lib1Ref WUGN Kaduna, 2026|1Lib1Ref WUGN Kaduna, 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2026/We create the first master class on access to knowledge and open technology in collaboration with National Autonomous University of Mexico, UNAM|We create the first master class on access to knowledge and open technology in collaboration with National Autonomous University of Mexico, UNAM]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 19:48, 30 July 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30838310 --> == This Month in Education: August 2026 == <div class="plainlinks" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">This Month in Education</span> <span style="font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"> Volume 15 • Issue 8 • August 2026</span> <div style="border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]</div> <div style="color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;">In This Issue</div></div> <div style="text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;"> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Coordinating Wikimedia's Presence in Iraqi Universities|Coordinating Wikimedia's Presence in Iraqi Universities]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/The EduWiki Hub Starter Kit Is Now Available in Spanish|The EduWiki Hub Starter Kit Is Now Available in Spanish]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Wiki and democracy campaign launches in Brazil|Wiki and democracy campaign launches in Brazil]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Wiki Clubs strengthen youth participation in open knowledge in the Philippines|Wiki Clubs strengthen youth participation in open knowledge in the Philippines]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Wikidata for research in the UI1|Wikidata for research in the UI1]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Nupe Wikipedia Hits 1,000 Articles: The Next Chapter in Our Knowledge Journey |Nupe Wikipedia Hits 1,000 Articles: The Next Chapter in Our Knowledge Journey]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Recruiting newcomers to preserve Yiddish using Wiktionary as a tool|Recruiting newcomers to preserve Yiddish using Wiktionary as a tool]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Voices in Our Hands: How Nigerian Kids are Documenting Nigerian Sign Language for the World|Voices in Our Hands: How Nigerian Kids are Documenting Nigerian Sign Language for the World]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Wiki in Schools, Architecture and Open Heritage|Wiki in Schools, Architecture and Open Heritage]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/More than 200 registrations, 22 speakers, and seven hours of shared experience: Wikimedia Ukraine’s Education Community Conference 2026|More than 200 registrations, 22 speakers, and seven hours of shared experience: Wikimedia Ukraine’s Education Community Conference 2026]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Launch of Wikifying a Conference handbook|Launch of Wikifying a Conference handbook]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/EduWiki Hub Updates: Working Groups Feedback Session and a New Roundtable for Program Officers|EduWiki Hub Updates: Working Groups Feedback Session and a New Roundtable for Program Officers]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2026/Curiosity through academic inquiry - learning by writing Wikipedia articles in Serbia|Curiosity through academic inquiry - learning by writing Wikipedia articles in Serbia]] </div> <div style="margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:54, 1 September 2026 (UTC)</div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&oldid=30917014 --> flk6k6qr8aj3rkhj435hm0zqnqonhly 0 162685 2830318 2238390 2026-09-01T23:42:58Z Michael Ten 654933 == Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas == added 2830318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- and raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|''''“Discuss”'''' page]].'' Diamandis and Kotler (2012) [[w:Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think|''Abundance'']] predicted rapid improvements in the coming decades in the quality of life for virtually all of humanity.<ref>See also Brynjolffson and McAfee (2014).</ref> These predictions are based on rates of improvements in many technologies similar to that of the growth of computers over the past 60 years. Since at least the late 1940s and probably longer, the cost of virtually any electronic function has been cut in half roughly every 2-3 years. As a result, we could buy for $1 in 2010 the computational capability that would have cost $1,000 around 1990 and $1,000,000 around 1970. However, these improvements are {{w|experience curve effects}}, which are based on cumulative production volumes. These cost and price reductions will only occur if (a) markets are sufficiently competitive and (b) common people the world over have money to buy the increasing quantities of goods and services that won't be produced unless nearly everyone benefits from these improvements. Instead, the productivity improvements needed to drive these improvements will most likely lead to increased unemployment and less money in the hands of consumers, when more is needed. We ''can'' get there with a {{w|job guarantee}}, which is a cornerstone of {{w|Modern Monetary Theory}} and part of the {{w|Green New Deal}}. However, we will never get there unless a critical mass of the electorate unhooks from mainstream media and looks elsewhere for information that offends the people who control media funding and governance, as explained in "[[confirmation bias and conflict]]." == Examples == For a concrete example, compare [[w:Smartphone|smartphones]] available in 2014 with earlier [[w:mobile phone|mobile phones]]. The first [[w:car phone|car phone]] was offered for sale in St. Louis, MO, in 1946. It weighed 36 kg (80 pounds), and at most 3 people could use it at one time in the entire metropolitan area. The first [[w:History of mobile phones|handheld mobile phone]] came on the market 27 years later in 1973. It weighed 1.1 kg (2.4 pounds), measured 23 x 13 x 4.45 cm (9 x 5 x 1.8 inches), had a talk time of only 30 minutes and took 10 hours to charge. Between 1946 and 1973 the size had come down by a factor of 40. Data on price and performance are not readily available; however, suppose that the price had fallen by a factor of 5 while the quality of service (area of service and sound quality) had improved by another factor of 5: The product of 40 by 5 by 5 produces a factor of roughly 1,000 in mobile phones in a little over 20 years. A similar analysis suggests that improvements in size, price and performance of cell phones in the 41 years between 1973 and 2014 could plausibly produce a reduction of a factor of very roughly 10 in weight, 100 in the price and 1,000 in performance in the intervening 41 years, totaling overall improvements by a factor of 1,000,000. Diamandis and Kotler forecast similar high rates of improvement for photovoltaic solar panels, potable water, food, health care, education, and many other things that could provide a modern standard of living for the poorest of the world's people. == Who will pay for the improvements? == However, this prediction of [[w:Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think|''Abundance'']] implicitly assumes that the poor and the middle class will be able to access these breakthrough technologies. The massive improvements in computer technology since the late 1940s is described by [[w:Moore's Law|Moore's Law]], which is a special case of more general [[w:experience curve effects|experience curve effects]]. This is based on data from various fields indicating that the cost per unit of almost anything declines in a near constant percentage with every doubling of cumulative production (i.e., following a [[w:Power law|power law]]). For this to work, there must be sufficient demand in the market for cumulative production to double repeatedly. Unfortunately, research by Thomas Piketty<ref>Piketty (2014)</ref> and David Graeber<ref>Graeber (2011)</ref> raises questions about whether the poor and the middle class will get the money required to create Diamandis and Kotler's forecasted [[w:Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think|''Abundance'']]: Piketty documents how the ultra-wealthy, especially in the US, have been extracting an ever increasing share of the wealth from the international economy. If this trend continues to expand, which seems likely without a major peasant revolt, the poor and the middle class will not be able to purchase the improved goods and services. This in turn means that cumulative production may not increase fast enough to drive down the unit costs as predicted by Diamandis and Kotler. This is consistent with Graeber's review of the history and archeology of the past 5,000 years: He sees a pattern of long periods with wealth and power concentrated in fewer and fewer hands interrupted by peasant revolts. Then the cycle begins again. To reverse the current trend towards increased concentration of wealth, Piketty wants the leading nations of the world to first create a mandatory system for compiling and sharing data on wealth, inheritance and income, and then to build a global taxation system based on that.<ref>Piketty (2014, esp. Part Four)</ref> Piketty suggests this could be done while simultaneously ''increasing'' the rate of economic growth. Achieving this may require a new international and democratic peasant rebellion. Without it, the poor and the middle class may never be able to purchase enough goods and services to create the ''abundance'' promised by Diamandis and Kotler. This view is further supported by the perspective of Nobel-prize economist [[w:Amartya Sen|Amartya Sen]] in [[w:Development as Freedom|''Development as Freedom'']], that economic development is driven by people who do not accept the limits their leaders attempt to impose upon them. It is also supported by research suggesting that that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]], because the British were the first to sufficiently restrict the power of the king and other veto groups to prevent the spread of innovations they didn't like.<ref>{{Citation | last = Vernon | first = Raymond | author-link = w:Raymond Vernon | year = 1989 | title = Technological Development: The Historical Experience | work = An EDI Seminar Paper Number 39 | series = Economic Development Institute of the World Bank | publisher = World Bank | page = 6 | isbn = 0-8213-1162-X | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/1999/09/17/000178830_98101911181278/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf | accessdate = 2014-07-06}}</ref> The discussion of "[[confirmation bias and conflict]]" suggests a way to achieve the promise of Diamandis and Kotler (2012): We can get spectacular improvements in productivity and broadly shared wealth ''if'' a critical mass of the electorate broadens their expectations enough to seek information elsewhere that is suppressed by the mainstream media, because it threatens the social status of those who control media funding and governance. == [[:Category:Freedom and abundance]] == This [[:Category:Freedom and abundance|''freedom and abundance'']] project on [[Wikiversity]] attempts to [[w:Crowdsourcing|crowdsource]] a full and open review of the relevant evidence for and against the claims cited above by Diamandis, Kotler, Piketty, and Graeber. Wikiversity is a natural home for a project like this for several reasons. First, Wikiversity is a [[w:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]] project and benefits from a culture similar to what has made [[w:Wikipedia|Wikipedia]] such a success. These include writing from a [[w:Template:Neutral point of view|neutral point of view]], [[w:Wikipedia:Verifiability|citing credible sources]], and [[w:Wikipedia:Assume good faith|assuming good faith]] on the part of others. Second, [[Portal:Research|Wikiversity provides some support for original research]], which is [[w:Wikipedia:No original research|not allowed on Wikipedia]]. [[:Category:Freedom and abundance|Essays in this series]] include an analysis of [[Media and corruption|the inverse relationship between a free press and political corruption]] (including problems with [[w:Oligopoly|oligopolistic]] media as in the United States). They also include an analysis of [[Effective defense|the effectiveness of alternative defense strategies]]. This includes a review of all the major violent and nonviolent governmental change efforts of the twentieth century that found that ''nonviolence builds democracy while violence sustains tyranny, on average in the long run''. == Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas == * How can AI agents help humanity to experience abundance and post scarcity? * How can decentralized wiki technologies help humanity to accelerate the path to shared abundance and prosperity? * What role might freedom tech play in helping humanity to achieve an abundance of freedom and liberty along with material abundance and post-scarcity? == References == * {{cite Q|Q4670623}}<!-- Diamandis and Kotler (2012) Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think--> * {{cite Q|Q1304168}}<!-- Graeber (2011) Debt: The First 5,000 Years--> * {{Citation | last = Piketty | first = Thomas | author-link = w:Thomas Piketty | year = 2014 | title = [[w:Capital in the Twenty-First Century|Capital in the Twenty-First Century]] | publisher = Belknap | isbn = 978-0-674-43000-6}} * {{Citation | last = Brynjolffson | first = Erik | last2 = McAfee | first2 = Andrew | author-link = w:Erik Brynjolffson | author2-link = w:Andrew McAfee | year = 2014 | title = The Second Machine Age | publisher = Norton | isbn = 9780393239355}}<ref>cited from {{Citation | last = McChesney | first = Robert | author-link = w:Robert W. McChesney | year = 2014 | title = Blowing the roof off the twenty-first century | publisher = Monthly Review Press | isbn = 978-1-58367-478-9}}</ref> == Notes == {{reflist|2}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Research projects]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Political economy]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] [[Category:Confirmation bias and conflict]] 5tkvlb7z9rnnrvfbqxc8fndnha6gnzt 0 168829 2830273 2790319 2026-09-01T18:11:10Z Dick Bos 24466 /* Contents */ link Ric 2830273 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Contents== * [[/Introduction/]] * [[/Ancient/]] * [[/Middle Ages/]] * [[/Pre-classical: Before Adam/]], [[William Petty]] * [[/Physiocracy/]], [[/Francois Quesnay/]] * [[/Classical Economics/]]: ** [[/Adam Smith/]] ** [[/Jean-Baptiste Say/]] ** [[/Thomas Robert Malthus/]] ** [[David Ricardo]] ** [[/John Stuart Mill/]] * [[/Socialists Before Marx/]] * [[/Karl Marx and Marxism/]]: ** [[Karl Marx]] ** [[Friedrich Engels]] * [[/The Neo-classical Economics: Marginal Revolution/]] * [[/Menger and Austrian Economics/]] * [[/Léon Walras and Vilfredo Pareto: General Equilibrium/]] * [[/Alfred Marshall/]] * [[/Historical school and Institutional Economics/]] * [[/Monetary Theories Before Keynesian Revolution/]] * [[/John Maynard Keynes and Keynesian Revolution/]] * [[/Keynesians after Keynes and Neoclassical Synthesis/]] * [[/Capitalism and Socialism/]] * [[/Econometrics and Mathematical Economics/]] * [[/Economists and Policy/]] * [[/Development of Game Theory/]] * [[/Milton Friedman and Monetarist Counterrevolution/]] * [[/Expansion of the Applications of Economic Analysis/]] * [[/Rational Expectation and After/]] * [[/Economic Growth Theory and Development Economics/]] * [[/International Economics/]] * [[/Postwar Heterodox Economics/]] * [[/Contemporary Economics/]] [[Category:Economics]] 2qabvqebylmnu8svmsv736fzeig6wo0 0 171301 2830448 2830122 2026-09-02T10:39:47Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2830448 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] aexxaw2dx6aj7dq74f40mp8vvapaex6 2830453 2830448 2026-09-02T10:54:39Z James500 297601 /* Culture */ Add 2830453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] slu8y69zz4kxienq7h0ev6ujzykfji9 2830454 2830453 2026-09-02T11:06:28Z James500 297601 /* Culture */ Add 2830454 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard A Peterson. The Production of Culture. (SAGE Contemporary Social Science Issues 33). SAGE Publications. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DILWAAAAMAAJ]. *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] m8pu4x53j8lnvbgsxm0vo7dbbtl7hgm 2830458 2830454 2026-09-02T11:32:52Z James500 297601 /* Korean */ Add 2830458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard A Peterson. The Production of Culture. (SAGE Contemporary Social Science Issues 33). SAGE Publications. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DILWAAAAMAAJ]. *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ==Latin American== History *Pedro Henríquez Ureña. A Concise History of Latin American Culture. Frederick A Praeger. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yZxoAAAAMAAJ] Modern *John King (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Latin American Culture. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BE30cHBvjM8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anthropology *Emilio Willems. Latin American Culture: An Anthropological Synthesis. Harper & Row. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mn8WAAAAYAAJ] Teaching *Gloria Contreras. Latin American Culture Studies: Information and Materials for Teaching about Latin America. Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kn9qAAAAMAAJ] ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] gbwviv40ce7b1tzq05169gbasbwiu1e 2830459 2830458 2026-09-02T11:33:13Z James500 297601 /* Latin American */ Add 2830459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard A Peterson. The Production of Culture. (SAGE Contemporary Social Science Issues 33). SAGE Publications. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DILWAAAAMAAJ]. *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ===Latin American=== History *Pedro Henríquez Ureña. A Concise History of Latin American Culture. Frederick A Praeger. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yZxoAAAAMAAJ] Modern *John King (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Latin American Culture. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BE30cHBvjM8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anthropology *Emilio Willems. Latin American Culture: An Anthropological Synthesis. Harper & Row. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mn8WAAAAYAAJ] Teaching *Gloria Contreras. Latin American Culture Studies: Information and Materials for Teaching about Latin America. Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kn9qAAAAMAAJ] ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] lgb9ye553j7tia49nwxbacd1goil316 2830464 2830459 2026-09-02T11:41:35Z James500 297601 /* Latin American */ Add 2830464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard A Peterson. The Production of Culture. (SAGE Contemporary Social Science Issues 33). SAGE Publications. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DILWAAAAMAAJ]. *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ===Latin American=== History *Pedro Henríquez Ureña. A Concise History of Latin American Culture. Frederick A Praeger. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yZxoAAAAMAAJ] Modern *John King (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Latin American Culture. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BE30cHBvjM8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anthropology *Emilio Willems. Latin American Culture: An Anthropological Synthesis. Harper & Row. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mn8WAAAAYAAJ] Teaching *Gloria Contreras. Latin American Culture Studies: Information and Materials for Teaching about Latin America. Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kn9qAAAAMAAJ] Cultural studies *Ana del Sarto, Alicia Ríos and Abril Trigo (eds). The Latin American Cultural Studies Reader. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NW1CXsOKRc8C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stephen Hart and Richard Young. Contemporary Latin American Cultural Studies. Hodder Arnold. 2003. Routledge. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o7TpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] b28dv8x8m47e7irzf8f4pd8tthqkm8j 2830465 2830464 2026-09-02T11:41:57Z James500 297601 /* Latin American */ Add 2830465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard A Peterson. The Production of Culture. (SAGE Contemporary Social Science Issues 33). SAGE Publications. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DILWAAAAMAAJ]. *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ===Latin American=== History *Pedro Henríquez Ureña. A Concise History of Latin American Culture. Frederick A Praeger. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yZxoAAAAMAAJ] Modern *John King (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Latin American Culture. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BE30cHBvjM8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anthropology *Emilio Willems. Latin American Culture: An Anthropological Synthesis. Harper & Row. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mn8WAAAAYAAJ] Teaching *Gloria Contreras. Latin American Culture Studies: Information and Materials for Teaching about Latin America. Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kn9qAAAAMAAJ] Cultural studies *Ana del Sarto, Alicia Ríos and Abril Trigo (eds). The Latin American Cultural Studies Reader. 2004.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NW1CXsOKRc8C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stephen Hart and Richard Young. Contemporary Latin American Cultural Studies. Hodder Arnold. 2003. Routledge. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o7TpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] c1wpjho71p7wvq456l8d07p2co920x2 2830466 2830465 2026-09-02T11:54:31Z James500 297601 /* Latin American */ Add 2830466 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}} {{Bibliography}} {{research}} If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.<ref>See [[w:Bibliography]].</ref> Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography. This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics. ==Index== *[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]] *[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]] *[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]] *[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]] ===About=== *[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]] ==Online libraries== Swedish: *[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank) *[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg) ==Biographical dictionaries etc== See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]] *Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur, "Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era". Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 83] et seq. Bibliographies, indexes, etc: *Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ] *Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ] *Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ] *Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ] *Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ] *Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ] *Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ] Particular works: *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]] *Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&btnG=Search+Books&bksoutput=html_text&tbm=bks&tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC]) *A & C Black's Who's Who *Who Was Who *The Academic Who's Who. A & C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA208&output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC *Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series) Works that comprise largely of biographies: *The Penguin Companion to Literature Theatres *A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers & Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15] ==Dictionaries of dates== [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org] *Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ] *Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&tbm=bks&q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC] *Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880 *[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ] *Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440] *Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930. *[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]] *Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates. *Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will] *Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA93&output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA351&output=html_text] *Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May) *Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&output=html] *Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880] Australia *John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog] *John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford & Co. Brisbane. 1895. America *Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921. ==Commodity dictionaries== *Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, "Commodity Dictionary", Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false p 182] & 183 *Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 & 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ] *Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC] *Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Encyclopedias== See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]] *[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] *Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990. *The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia ==Almanacs== See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]]. *Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. **For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft] *Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C] ==Censuses== *Census of New Zealand and Labrador **1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog] **1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng] **1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng] ==Pilot guides== *[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]] *American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ] *Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ] *Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Books of facts== *The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC *Chambers Book of Facts *Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008 *Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond & Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ] ==Series of books== See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]] *George M Sinkankas, "Series" in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false 250] to 273. *"Publishing in Series, 1896-1916" in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q&f=false Page 539] et seq. *Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ] *Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Khan. "Monographs in series". The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false 207] to 209. *Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false 6] and 7. *Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1190#v=onepage&q&f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false] ***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ] **Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ] **Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ] *Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ] **2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ] **3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific & Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&pg=PA949#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ] *Young People's Literature in Series *Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called "Catalogue of Reprints in Series"). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ] *Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&pg=PA656#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Series of classics== *Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library) *Oxford World Classics *Everyman's Library *Wordsworth Classics *Macmillan Collectors Library *Bantam Classics *Minster Classics *The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons & Co, Glasgow) *Chandos Classics *Temple Classics *Longmans Heritage of Literature Series Russian *Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London) SF *Corgi SF Collectors Library Children's and shorter classics etc *Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company. *Ladybird Children's Classics. *Mini Classics. Parragon Books. *Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd. *A series published by Dean & Son Ltd ==Non-fiction general series== *[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]] *[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]] *Princeton Companions *Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions *Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions *Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions *Brill's Companions *Facts on File Companions *Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur *Butterworths Guides to Information Sources. *Columbia Guides *Blackwell Guides *Edinburgh Critical Guides *Collins Reference Dictionaries *New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]]) *Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]]) *Concise Encyclopedias. Collins. *Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]]) *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. *[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton. *Made Simple Books. W H Allen. *Palgrave Master Series *Harrap's Mini Series *Shire Albums. Shire Publications. *Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd. *The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company *Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners. *Hamlyn Pocket Guides *Oxford Monograph Series *Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]] *Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books University *University Paperbacks. Meuthen & Co *World Student Series. Addison Wesley *Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton *International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold *Hutchinson University Library Imprints *Pelican Books Pictorials *Salmon Cameracolour series *Pitkin Pictorials United Kingdom *Aspects of Britain. HMSO. Places *The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]] *G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]] Art *Movements in World Art. Meuthen. *Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen. *How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington. Film *BFI Companions Popular science *Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd. *Pan Piper Science Series Science and mathematics *Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines *Schaum's Outline Series Military *Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. "An Illustrated Guide to ...". Salamander Books. *Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press. *Osprey Men-at-Arms *Jane's Pocket Books Communication *The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press. *John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge. *The Media. Wayland. Cookery *ABC series. Peter Pauper Press. Gardening *Pan Piper Small Gardens Series. Mythology *Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness) ==History and Geography== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. *Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] General series *Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography Atlases *The Times Atlas of World History *Philip's Atlas of World History History of geography: *Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ] ==Chronology== See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]] General *Chronology of World History. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994. **Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994. **Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994. **Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon & Schuster. Reissued 1994. Centuries *Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ] *Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ] *Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC] *20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ] *Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ] *Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Decades *Series: **Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ] Years *Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Catalogue]. *The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false 1882 to 1883]. *James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false 1821]. *Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ancient *Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968. *Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993. ==Anniversaries== *Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ] *On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Egyptology== *Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Battlefields== *[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series] *"The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain". Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart. ==Armed forces== Periodicals: *[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]] Military *The Journal of Military History *Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC] *The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC] *The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC] *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC] *The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Royal Tank Corps Journal *The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment *The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&cs=0&tbm=bks&q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&biw=534&bih=688&dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1] *The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC] *The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&biw=534&bih=736&dpr=1.5] *Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C] *Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC] United States *Military Review *The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC] *Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC] *The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC] Naval *[[w:Navy News|Navy News]] ==Armour== Armoured warfare; tank warfare *Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ] *Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ] *Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ] *Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ] *Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ] *Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ] Atlas *Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ] Armored forces *Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ] ==Mesoamerica== *James. Aztecs & Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: "Books Received" (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and "Overviews for the general reader" (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252. *Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ] ==Accounting== See [[s:Category:Accounting]] Periodicals *[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards) *Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen ==Arts== *Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997. ==Biography== *Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ] *Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ] Yearbooks *Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC] *Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ] ==Information technology== *Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Economics== General series: *Dryden Press Series in Economics *Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational *Nuffield Economics & Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman. Other: *Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984. *Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991. *Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991. *Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983. *Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991. *Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986. *Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989. *Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985.  *Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981. *National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990. *Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992. ==Games== Chess *Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987. *Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980. *Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977. *Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. General series *Batsford Chess Books **Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford. Periodicals See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]] *British Chess Magazine Wargames *Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward. **Laurie Taylor. "Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees". TV Times. 1978. pp 28 & 29. **Terry Wise. "Battleground". Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 & 262. *[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television]. ==Toys== Periodicals *Games & Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home & Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C *Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. "Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29 *[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. "Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister" [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing ==Cricket== See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]] *Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ]. **Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket. *Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ] Scores and biographies *Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]] Periodicals *[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia *Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463] *The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket India *The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies] Annuals *[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966]. ===Cricketers=== Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies *[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]] *[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]] *John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ] *World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ] *Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ] *Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980. *S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934. *Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ] *Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ] *Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC] *Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ] Gloucestershire *Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html] *Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C]. *Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795] Australia *The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ] *Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ] *C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894. *Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus & Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ]. ==Geology== *Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History. ==Mineralogy== *Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA473#v=onepage&q&f=false 473] to 476. *Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver & Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981. ==Paper== See [[s:Category:Paper]] *Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf] *West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog] ==Books== *British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ] *Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ] *Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called "Book News Monthly" from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ] *U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ] *Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ] *Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ] *Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C] *Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ] Rare *Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ] Printed *Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 31] ==Paperback and Paperbound== *Swados, "Paper Books: What do they Promise?" (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114 *Wagman, "The Paperbound Book Business" (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false 9] (No 5, November) ==Science== *Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998. ==Entertainment== *The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/] ==Television== *Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television] Magazines *The Radio Times *TV Times Newspaper television reviews etc United Kingdom *A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns. *"Choice" or "Television and Radio Choice" in "Television and Radio". 1991. Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the "Life & Times" section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where "Life & Times" is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper. *"Choice" or "TV Choice" in "Television and Radio". The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. *"Choice". The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *"Television Choice". The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper. *"Review". The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper. *There are reviews in: **The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph Netherlands *"TV: Films Video" in "televisie en radio woensdag". Limburgs Dagblad. *"show". Limburgs Dagblad. Japan *"Today's Choice" in "TV/Radio". The Japan Times. Music *Tele-Tunes Archives and listings *[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables]. ==Animation== *John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005. *Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1958#v=onepage&q&f=false]. ==Colours== *Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/] ==Culture== *Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard A Peterson. The Production of Culture. (SAGE Contemporary Social Science Issues 33). SAGE Publications. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DILWAAAAMAAJ]. *Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zygmunt Bauman. Culture as Praxis. 1973. Sage. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7yqa0-s6N24C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Material culture *Thomas J Schlereth (ed). Material Culture: A Research Guide. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ig9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert DuPlessis. Material Culture. (Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide). 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y-p4acTurWQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue). Asian Periodicals, Asian *Asian Culture Quarterly. Asian Cultural Center, Taipei [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4PYtAQAAIAAJ] *Asian Culture: A Quarterly Review. Vietnamese Association for Asian Cultural Relations (Hội Việt Nam Nghiên Cứu Liên Lạc Văn Hoá Á Châu). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g9YbAAAAMAAJ] *Journal of Asian Culture. Graduate Students in Asian Studies at UCLA. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HBtAAAAMAAJ] Asian popular culture *Anthony YH Fung (ed). Asian Popular Culture: The Global (Dis)continuity. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Htqw-BHJlnwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A Lent (eds). Asian Popular Culture in Transition. (Routledge Contemporary Asia Series). 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UMZ7eH6dDxkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John A Lent and Lorna Fitzsimmons (eds). Asian Popular Culture: New, Hybrid, and Alternate Media. Lexington Books. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tG6AEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeojin Kim, Dharshani Lakmali Jayasinghe, Hiba Aleem and Karen A Ritzenhoff (eds). Contemporary Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0g9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZo3EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. East Asian *Xiaobing Tang and Stephen Snyder (eds). In Pursuit Of Contemporary East Asian Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Koichi Iwabuchi, Eva Tsai and Chris Berry (eds). Routledge Handbook of East Asian Popular Culture. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seok-Kyeong Hong and Dal Yong Jin (eds). Transnational Convergence of East Asian Pop Culture. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hbsTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2000#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *East Asian Cultural Studies. The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4OTUAAAAMAAJ] ===Japanese=== *Paul Varley. Japanese Culture. 1984. 4th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BvUEzBin61AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Japanese Culture: A Short History. 1973. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bas6AAAAMAAJ] *Ruth Benedict. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. 1946. A Mariner Book. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7NpvfYsmU0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Robert J Smith and Richard K Beardsley (eds). Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gZFkfPrNErEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eiichiro Ishida. Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics. (Translated by Teruko Kachi). 1974. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gztxAAAAMAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Japanese Culture: The Soul and Heritage of Japan. Gakken. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNomAQAAMAAJ] *Setsuko Kojima and Gene A Crane. A Dictionary of Japanese Culture. Chopmen Publishers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms_rAAAAMAAJ] *Studies in Japanese Culture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kxAOAQAAMAAJ] *Chikio Hayashi and Yasumasa Kuroda. Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tTzDEAAAQBAJ] Cultural history *Shunsuke Tsurumi. A Cultural History of Postwar Japan 1945-1980. Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1984.  Kegan Paul International. 1987. Routledge. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6HYsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *GB Sansom. Japan: A Short Cultural History. 1931. Revised Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZOpkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Dougill. Kyoto: A Cultural History. (Cityscapes). Oxford University Press. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rhMTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Nippon No Bunka [日本の文化 = Nippon No Bunka = Nihon No Bunka = Japanese culture] *Genshoku Nihon No Bunka (Japanese: 原色日本の文化). Shogakukan (小学館). 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FKwdAQAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN15289454]. *日本文化提要 - Guides to Japanese Culture. 日本文化研究所編集局. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8noNAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hXcEAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN02209055]. Contemporary *Sandra Buckley. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ZKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wtkm3O3nWXkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roger J Davies and Osamu Ikeno (eds). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Donald H Shively (ed). Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture. 1971. Paperback. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnN9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular culture *Hidetoshi Kato (ed). Japanese Popular Culture. Charles E Tuttle Company. Rutland, Vermont. Tokyo. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkVxAAAAMAAJ] **Richard Gid Powers, Hidetoshi Kato and Bruce Stronach (eds). Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tuRwAAAAMAAJ] *Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade (eds). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBFFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1963#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Alisa Freedman (ed). 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WuC0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Timothy J Craig (ed). Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. ME Sharpe. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vvw5WQ0crLoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *E Taylor Atkins. A History of Popular Culture in Japan: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DK41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 2023: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hGuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Douglas Slaymaker. A Century of Popular Culture in Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_dxAAAAMAAJ] *John Whittier Treat. Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. University of Hawaii Press. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuYwAQAAIAAJ] *D P Martinez (ed). The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin. Regionalizing Culture: The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Arts and culture *Nelly Delay. Art and Culture of Japan. (Discoveries). Harry N Abrams. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VlyAILUBFLYC] *Stephen Addiss, Gerald Groemer and J Thomas Rimer (eds). Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture: An Illustrated Sourcebook. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TZcBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leisure *Sepp Linhart and Sabine Fruhstuck (eds). The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. State University of New York Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev_n7VaEpUoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Culture and customs *Noriko Kamachi. Culture and Customs of Japan. (Culture and Customs of Asia: ISSN 1097-0738). 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2cvWAAAAMAAJ] Series *Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era ===Korean=== *John H Koo and Andrew C Nahm (eds). An Introduction to Korean Culture. Hollym. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=975xAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne Miyang Cho and Lee M Roberts (eds). Korean Culture in the Global Age: K-Pop, K-Drama, K-Film, and K-Literature. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ftgEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard Saccone. The Business of Korean Culture. Hollym. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ji2AAAAIAAJ] Periodicals *Korean Culture. Korean Cultural Service. ISSN 0270-1618. ===Latin American=== History *Pedro Henríquez Ureña. A Concise History of Latin American Culture. Frederick A Praeger. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yZxoAAAAMAAJ] Contemporary *C Gail Guntermann (ed). Contemporary Latin American Culture: Unity and Diversity. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjUcAQAAIAAJ] *George M Foster (ed). Readings in Contemporary Latin American Culture: An Anthropological Sourcebook. Selected Academic Readings. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a89AAAAAIAAJ] Modern *John King (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Latin American Culture. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BE30cHBvjM8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anthropology *Emilio Willems. Latin American Culture: An Anthropological Synthesis. Harper & Row. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mn8WAAAAYAAJ] Teaching *Gloria Contreras. Latin American Culture Studies: Information and Materials for Teaching about Latin America. Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kn9qAAAAMAAJ] Cultural studies *Ana del Sarto, Alicia Ríos and Abril Trigo (eds). The Latin American Cultural Studies Reader. 2004.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NW1CXsOKRc8C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stephen Hart and Richard Young. Contemporary Latin American Cultural Studies. Hodder Arnold. 2003. Routledge. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o7TpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Bilateral== Britain and Japan *Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ] ==Prehistoric life== Prehistoric animals *[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] *Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA269#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ] **Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme. Dinosaurs *Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.] ==Continents== ===Asia=== ====Far East==== Bibliography *Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] ====Japan and Korea==== Bibliography *Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ] *Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==See also== *[[Bibliography]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Bibliographies]] [[Category:Research]] jh49lnor7s9xuiam9z14aout2fm3ahd 0 203647 2830311 2460201 2026-09-01T23:31:41Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Related topics */ * [[Epistemology]] 2830311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{font|size=medium|&#9758;}} This page belongs to resource collections on [[Logic Live|Logic]] and [[Inquiry Live|Inquiry]]. A '''truth theory''' or a '''theory of truth''' is a conceptual framework that underlies a particular conception of truth, such as those used in art, ethics, logic, mathematics, philosophy, the sciences, or any discussion that either mentions or makes use of a notion of truth. A truth theory can be anything from an informal theory, based on implicit or tacit ideas, to a formal theory, constructed from explicit axioms and definitions and developed by means of definite rules of inference. The scope of a truth theory can be restricted to tightly-controlled and well-bounded universes of discourse or its horizon may extend to the limits of the human imagination. ==Truth in perspective== Notions of truth are notoriously difficult to disentangle from many of our most basic concepts &mdash; meaning, reality, and values in general, to mention just a few. The subjects of meaning and truth are commonly treated together, the idea being that a thing must be meaningful before it can be true or false. This association is found in ancient times, and has become standard in modern times under the heading of ''semantics'', especially ''formal semantics'' and ''model theory''. Another association of longstanding interest is the relation between truth and ''logical validity'', "because the fundamental notion of logic is validity and this is definable in terms of truth and falsehood" (Kneale and Kneale, 16). Though not the main subjects of this article, meaning and validity are truth's neighbors, and incidental inquiries of them can serve to cast light on truth's character. Beyond this minor note of accord, hardly universal, suggesting that meaning is necessary to truth, reflectors on the idea of truth just as quickly disperse into schools of thought that barely comprehend each other's thinking. A few of the more notable points of departure are these: # One of the first partings of the ways occurs at the watershed between literal and symbolic meanings, leading to a corresponding division in truths. People often speak of truth in art, truth in drama, truth in fiction, human truth, moral, religious, and spiritual truth, along with the difference between truth in principle and truth in practice. These topics demand a perspective on meaning, reality, and truth that looks beyond the bounds of literal truth and the branches of philosophy that are limited to it. # Merely resolving that meaning precedes truth, logically speaking, only brings up a host of new questions, since the meaning of the word ''meaning'' is notoriously hard to pin down. There are just to start at least two different dimensions of meaning that are commonly recognized, namely, ''connotative meaning'' and ''denotative meaning''. In one classical formulation, truth is defined as the good of [[logic]], where logic is treated as a [[normative science]], that is, an [[inquiry]] into a ''good'' or a ''value'' that seeks knowledge of it and the means to achieve it. In this scheme of ideas, truth is the positive quality of a sign that indicates the right course of action for reaching a value that we value for its own sake. As such, truth takes its place among justice and beauty, whose normative sciences are ethics and aesthetics, respectively. Viewed in this light, it is pointless to discuss truth in isolation from a frame of reference that encompasses the topics of inquiry, knowledge, logic, meaning, practice, and value, all very broadly conceived. ==Historical overview== In an ancient fragment of text called the ''Dissoi Logoi'', a writer is evidently trying to prove the impossibility of speaking consistently about truth and falsehood. One of the conundrums put forward to confound the reader cites the case of the verbal form, "I am an initiate", which is true when ''A'' says it but false when ''B'' says it. Escape from befuddlement seems easy enough if one observes that it is not the verbal expression, the sentence, to which the predicates of truth and falsity apply but what the sentence expresses, the proposition that it states. (Cf. Kneale and Kneale, 16). This same tension between strings of characters and their meanings remains with us to this day. In his early work &#928;&#949;&#961;&#953; &#917;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#945;s (''Peri Hermeneias'' or ''On Interpretation'') Aristotle strikes a chord that not only sets the key for a number of philosophical movements down through the ages but supplies the initial motif for many themes in the logic of meaning and truth that are still undergoing active development in our time. <blockquote> Words spoken (phoné) are symbols or signs (symbola) of affections or impressions (pathemata) of the soul (psyche); written words (graphomena) are the signs of words spoken. As writing, so also is speech not the same for all races of men. But the mental affections themselves, of which these words are primarily signs (semeia), are the same for the whole of mankind, as are also the objects (pragmata) of which those affections are representations or likenesses, images, copies (homoiomata). (Aristotle, ''On Interpretation'', 1.16^a4). </blockquote> Some of the points to be noted in this passage are these: # Aristotle employs a distinction in Greek that is drawn between natural or physical signs (semeia) and artificial or cultural signs (symbola). # The passage mentions three principal domains of elements, namely, the ''objects'' (pragmata), the ''signs'' (semeia, symbola), and the psychological elements (pathemata). The last domain extends over the full range of a human being's affective and cognitive experiences, for brevity summed up as ''ideas'' and ''impressions'', where these words are taken in their broadest conceivable senses. # This means that the phenomena under investigation have to do with the types of [[three-place relation]]s that conceivably exist among three domains of this sort. As a general rule, three-place relations can be very complex, and a commonly-tried strategy for approaching their complexity is to consider the [[two-place relation]]s that are left when the presence of a selected domain is simply ignored. # There are two types of two-place relation on the face of the overall three-place relation that Aristotle takes the trouble to mention, namely these:<p>Sign <math>\longrightarrow</math> Idea. Words spoken are signs or symbols of pathemata.</p><p>Idea <math>\longrightarrow</math> Object. Pathemata are icons (homoiomata) of pragmata.</p> # More incidentally, but still bearing heavily on many later discussions, Aristotle holds that the relation between writing and speech is analogous to the relation between speech and the realm of experiences, feelings, and thoughts.<p>Writing <math>\longrightarrow</math> Speech. Written words are symbols of spoken words.</p><p> Speech <math>\longrightarrow</math> Ideation. Spoken words are symbols of impressions.</p> ==Elements of theory== It is customary in philosophy to refer to a distinctive treatment of a particular subject matter, frequently summed up in a succinctly stated thesis, as a ''theory'', whether or not it qualifies as a theory by strict empirical or logical standards. When there is any risk of confusion, an informal thesis of this kind may be referred to as an ''account'', a ''perspective'', a ''treatment'', or so on, reserving the term ''theory'' for the type of [[formal system]] that serves in logic and science. Theories of truth can be classified according to the following features: * Primary subjects. What kinds of things are potentially meaningful enough to be asserted or not, believed or not, or considered true or false? * Relevant objects. What kinds of things, in addition to primary subjects, are pertinent to deciding whether to assert them or not, believe them or not, or consider them true or false? * Value predicates. What kinds of things are legitimate to say about primary subjects, either in themselves, or in relation to relevant objects? In some discussions of meaning and truth that consider forms of expression well beyond the limits of literally-interpreted linguistic forms, potentially meaningful elements are called ''[[representation]]s'', or ''[[sign (semiotics)|signs]]'' for short, taking these words in the broadest conceivable senses. Most treatments of truth draw an important distinction at this point, though the language in which they draw it may vary. On the one hand there is a type of incomplete sign that is nevertheless said to be true or false of various objects. For example, in logic there are ''terms'' such as "man" or "woman" that are true of some things and false of others, and there are ''predicates'' such as "__is a man" or "__is a woman" that are true or false in the same way. On the other hand there is a type of complete sign that expresses what grammarians traditionally call a ''complete thought''. Here one speaks of ''sentences'' and ''propositions''. Some considerations of truth admit both types of signs, ''terms'' and ''sentences'', while others admit only the bearers of complete thoughts into the arena of judgment. In a number of recent discussions that focus on linguistic analysis, the vehicles of complete thoughts are described as ''truthbearers'', with no intention of prejudging whether they bear truth or falsehood. The things that can be said about any of these representations, signs, or truthbearers are expressed in what most truth theorists describe as ''truth predicates''. Most inquiries into the character of truth begin with a notion of an informative, meaningful, or significant element, the truth of whose information, meaning, or significance may be put into question and needs to be evaluated. Depending on the context, this element might be called an ''artefact'', ''expression'', ''image'', ''impression'', ''lyric'', ''mark'', ''performance'', ''picture'', ''sentence'', ''sign'', ''string'', ''symbol'', ''text'', ''thought'', ''token'', ''utterance'', ''word'', ''work'', and so on. For the sake of brevity, it is convenient to use the term ''sign'' for any one of these elements. Whatever the case, one has the task of judging whether the bearers of information, meaning, or significance are indeed ''truth-bearers''. This judgment is typically expressed in the form of a specific ''truth predicate'', whose positive application to a sign asserts that the sign is true. Considered within the broadest horizon, there is little reason to imagine that the process of judging a ''work'', that leads to a predication of false or true, is necessarily amenable to formalization, and it may always remain what is commonly called a ''judgment call''. But there are indeed many well-circumscribed domains where it is useful to consider disciplined forms of evaluation, and the observation of these limits allows for the institution of what is called a ''[[method]]'' of judging truth and falsity. One of the first questions that can be asked in this setting is about the relationship between the significant performance and its reflective critique. If one expresses oneself in a particular fashion, and someone says "that's true", is there anything useful at all that can be said in general terms about the relationship between these two acts? For instance, does the critique add value to the expression criticized, does it say something significant in its own right, or is it just an insubstantial echo of the original sign? Theories of truth may be described according to several dimensions of description that affect the character of the predicate "true". The truth predicates that are used in different theories may be classified by the number of things that have to be mentioned in order to assess the truth of a sign, counting the sign itself as the first thing. In formal logic, this number is called the ''[[arity]]'' of the predicate. The kinds of truth predicates may then be subdivided according to any number of more specific characters that various theorists recognize as important. # A ''monadic'' truth predicate is one that applies to its main subject ? typically a concrete representation or its abstract content ? independently of reference to anything else. In this case one can say that a truth bearer is true in and of itself. # A ''dyadic'' truth predicate is one that applies to its main subject only in reference to something else, a second subject. Most commonly, the auxiliary subject is either an ''object'', an ''interpreter'', or a ''language'' to which the representation bears some [[relation (mathematics)|relation]]. # A ''triadic'' truth predicate is one that applies to its main subject only in reference to a second and a third subject. For example, in a pragmatic theory of truth, one has to specify both the object of the sign, and either its interpreter or another sign called the ''interpretant'' before one can say that the sign is true ''of'' its object ''to'' its interpreting agent or sign. Several qualifications must be kept in mind with respect to any such radically simple scheme of classification, as real practice seldom presents any pure types, and there are settings in which it is useful to speak of a theory of truth that is "almost" ''k''-adic, or that "would be" ''k''-adic if certain details can be abstracted away and neglected in a particular context of discussion. That said, given the generic division of truth predicates according to their arity, further species can be differentiated within each genus according to a number of more refined features. The truth predicate of interest in a typical [[correspondence theory of truth]] tells of a relation between representations and objective states of affairs, and is therefore expressed, for the most part, by a dyadic predicate. In general terms, one says that a representation is ''true of'' an objective situation, more briefly, that a sign is true of an object. The nature of the correspondence may vary from theory to theory in this family. The correspondence can be fairly arbitrary or it can take on the character of an ''[[analogy]]'', an ''[[icon]]'', or a ''[[morphism]]'', whereby a representation is rendered true of its object by the existence of corresponding elements and a similar structure. ===Signs=== In some branches of philosophy and fields of science the domain of potentially meaningful entities may include almost any kind of informative or significant element. The generic terms ''sign'' or ''representation'' suffice for these, with the qualification that the terms are used equivocally up and down a full spectrum from the more abstract ''types'' to the more concrete ''tokens'' that are associated with each other. More specifically, the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy begins with a focus on the syntactic character of the ''sentence'', from which is abstracted its meaningful content, referred to as the corresponding ''proposition''. A proposition is the content expressed by a sentence, held in a belief, or affirmed in an assertion or judgment. ''Truthbearer'' is used by a number of writers to refer to any entity that can be judged true or false. The term ''truthbearer'' may be applied to propositions, sentences, statements, ideas, beliefs, and judgments. Some writers exclude one or more of these categories, or argue that some of them are true (or false) only in a derivative sense. Other writers may add additional entities to the list. Truthbearers typically have two possible values, true or false. Fictional forms of expression are usually regarded as false if interpreted literally, but may be said to bear a species of truth if interpreted suitably. Still other truthbearers may be judged true or false to a greater or lesser degree. ===Higher order signs=== As ''predicate terms'', most discussions of truth allow for a number of phrases that are used to say in what ways signs or sentences or their abstract senses are regarded as true, either by themselves or in relation to other things. Theorists who admit the term call these phrases ''[[truth predicate]]s''. A truth predicate that is used to ascribe truth to something, in and of itself, in effect treating truth as an [[intrinsic property (philosophy)|intrinsic property]] of the thing, is called a ''one-place'' or ''monadic'' truth predicate. Other forms of truth predicates may be used to say that something is true in relation to specified numbers and types of other things. These are called ''many-place'' or ''polyadic'' truth predicates. In ordinary parlance, the things that one says about a subject are expressed in predicates. If one says that a sentence is true, then one is predicating truth of that sentence. Is this the same thing as asserting the sentence? This question serves as useful touchstone for sorting out some of the theories of truth. ===Propositional attitudes=== <blockquote> What sort of name shall we give to verbs like 'believe' and 'wish' and so forth? I should be inclined to call them 'propositional verbs'. This is merely a suggested name for convenience, because they are verbs which have the ''form'' of relating an object to a proposition. As I have been explaining, that is not what they really do, but it is convenient to call them propositional verbs. Of course you might call them 'attitudes', but I should not like that because it is a psychological term, and although all the instances in our experience are psychological, there is no reason to suppose that all the verbs I am talking of are psychological. There is never any reason to suppose that sort of thing. (Russell 1918, 227). </blockquote> What a proposition is, is one thing. How we feel about it, or how we regard it, is another. We can accept it, assert it, believe it, command it, contest it, declare it, deny it, doubt it, enjoin it, exclaim it, expect it, imagine it, intend it, know it, observe it, prove it, question it, suggest it, or wish it were so. Different attitudes toward propositions are called ''propositional attitudes'', and they are also discussed under the headings of ''intentionality'' and ''linguistic modality''. The formal properties of verbs like ''assert'', ''believe'', ''command'', ''consider'', ''deny'', ''doubt'', ''hunt'', ''imagine'', ''judge'', ''know'', ''want'', ''wish'', and a host of others, are studied under these headings by linguists and logicians alike. Many problematic situations in real life arise from the circumstance that many different propositions in many different modalities are in the air at once. In order to compare propositions of different colors and flavors, as it were, we have no basis for comparison but to examine the underlying propositions themselves. Thus we are brought back to matters of language and logic. Despite the name, propositional attitudes are not regarded as psychological attitudes proper, since the formal disciplines of linguistics and logic are concerned with nothing more concrete than what can be said in general about their formal properties and their patterns of interaction. The variety of attitudes that a proposer can bear toward a single proposition is a critical factor in evaluating its truth. One topic of central concern is the relation between the modalities of assertion and belief, especially when viewed in the light of the proposer's intentions. For example, we frequently find ourselves faced with the question of whether a person's assertions conform to his or her beliefs. Discrepancies here can occur for many reasons, but when the departure of assertion from belief is intentional, we usually call that a ''lie''. Other comparisons of multiple modalities that frequently arise are the relationships between belief and knowledge and the discrepancies that occur among observations, expectations, and intentions. Deviations of observations from expectations are commonly perceived as ''surprises'', phenomena that call for ''explanations'' to reduce the shock of amazement. Deviations of observations from intentions are commonly experienced as ''problems'', situations that call for plans of action to reduce the drive of dissatisfaction. Either type of discrepancy forms an impulse to ''[[inquiry]]'' (Awbrey and Awbrey 1995). ===Reflection and quotation=== The study of propositional attitudes is no sooner begun than it leads to the all-important philosophical distinction between (1) using a meaning-bearer to bear its meaning in an active manner and (2) mentioning a meaning-bearer in a form that keeps its meaning in a more inert or inhibited state. The reasons for doing the latter are various, but involve the need to reflect on a potential meaning, to compare and contrast it with others, to criticize and evaluate both its logical implications and its practical consequences, all before deciding whether to put its meaning into action or not. The word &ldquo;quote&rdquo; derives from the Latin verb ''quotare'', which refers to the practice of numbering references and referring to pieces of text by marking their numbers. There is a certain aesthetic distance involved in this practice, and it leads, if only for moments at a time, to viewing each piece of text as a string of characters that bears its own litter of meanings, but meanings to be reflected on and critically compared with others, both in and out of their litter. It is hardly an accident, then, that matters of Gödel numbers, quotation, and reflection are bound up with each other in mathematical logic and computation theory. ==Varieties of truth theory== ===Nominal truth theories=== A ''nominal truth'' theory is defined by the axiom that the concept ''truth'' is a mere name. In traditional systems of logic, a concept is always a symbol, specifically, a mental symbol, and so the word ''mere'' in the nominal axiom says that ''truth'' is nothing more than a symbol. One of the aims of nominal philosophies, generally speaking, is to clear away the conceptual clutter of excess metaphysical ideas through the searching examination of their verbal formulations. Thus the question arises whether ''truth'' is one of the essentials or one of the excesses of rational thought. One method of critical analysis that is commonly brought to bear at this juncture is based on the nominal corollary that if one can do without the word in every linguistic context, then one can do without the concept, which is after all nothing but the word. ===Real truth theories=== ===Formal truth theories=== There is a generally acknowledged distinction between merely contemplating or entertaining a proposition, and actually asserting or believing it. This does not mean that there is general agreement as to the precise nature of the distinction. Although there are many ways of talking about the distinction, words alone do not guarantee clarity, and they often lead to the problem of having to decide which descriptions say the same thing and which say something different. For example, formal logic provides symbolic operators for indicating the assertion of a sentence, or the assertion of the proposition that comes from interpreting the sentence relative to a particular context of discussion. Another way of saying something about a sentence or the corresponding proposition is by means of various semantic predicates, including truth predicates as a special case. This raises the question of how these operators and predicates are related to one another. As noted before, one of the first questions of this sort is whether asserting a proposition amounts to the same thing as predicating truth of that proposition. ===Semantic relations=== A ''denotation relation'', or a ''name relation'', is a [[relation (mathematics)|relation]] between symbols (formulas, words, phrases) and the things that they are interpreted as denoting or naming in a particular context of discussion (Church 1962). The things denoted, which may be quite literally anything that can be talked about or thought about, are called the ''objects'' of denotation. Different theories of meaning vary in their use of denotation relations and the properties that they require of them. The following are two criteria that serve to distinguish particular theories of denotation: # How many things can a symbol denote? For instance, can a symbol denote more than one thing, or must a symbol always denote at most one thing? # Is denoting the same sort of relation as ''being true of'', and thus a state of affairs that can be described by a particular type of truth predicate, or is denoting a very different sort of relation than that? ==Truth and the conduct of life== <blockquote> Again, in a ship, if a man were at liberty to do what he chose, but were devoid of mind and excellence in navigation ([[arete (excellence)|&#945;&#961;&#949;&#964;&#951;s]] &#954;&#965;&#946;&#949;&#961;&#957;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#951;s), do you perceive what must happen to him and his fellow sailors? (Plato, ''Alcibiades'', 135A). </blockquote> ==References== * Aristotle, &ldquo;On Interpretation&rdquo;, Harold P. Cooke (trans.), pp. 111&ndash;179 in ''Aristotle, Volume&nbsp;1'', Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938. * Awbrey, J.L., and Awbrey, S.M. (Autumn 1995), &ldquo;Interpretation as Action : The Risk of Inquiry&rdquo;, ''Inquiry : Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines'' 15(1), pp. 40&ndash;52. [https://web.archive.org/web/19970626071826/http://chss.montclair.edu/inquiry/fall95/awbrey.html Archive]. [https://www.pdcnet.org/inquiryct/content/inquiryct_1995_0015_0001_0040_0052 Journal]. [https://www.academia.edu/1266493/Interpretation_as_Action_The_Risk_of_Inquiry Online]. * Blackburn, S. (1996), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996. * Blackburn, S., and Simmons, K. (eds., 1999), ''Truth'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. * Church, A. (1962a), &ldquo;Name Relation, or Meaning Relation&rdquo;, p. 204 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. * Church, A. (1962b), &ldquo;Truth, Semantical&rdquo;, p. 322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. * Kneale, W., and Kneale, M. (1962), ''The Development of Logic'', Oxford University Press, London, UK, 1962. Reprinted with corrections, 1975. * Plato, &ldquo;Alcibiades&nbsp;1&rdquo;, W.R.M. Lamb (trans.), pp. 93&ndash;223 in ''Plato, Volume 12'', Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1927. * Russell, B. (1918), &ldquo;The Philosophy of Logical Atomism&rdquo;, ''The Monist'', 1918. Reprinted, pp. 177&ndash;281 in ''Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901&ndash;1950'', Robert Charles Marsh (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, UK, 1956. Reprinted, pp. 35&ndash;155 in ''The Philosophy of Logical Atomism'', David Pears (ed.), Open Court, La&nbsp;Salle, IL, 1985. ==Further reading== * Beaney, M. (ed., 1997), ''The Frege Reader'', Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK. * Dewey, J. (1900&ndash;1901), ''Lectures on Ethics 1900?1901'', Donald F. Koch (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL, 1991. * Dewey, John (1932), ''Theory of the Moral Life'', Part 2 of John Dewey and James H. Tufts, ''Ethics'', Henry Holt and Company, New York, NY, 1908. 2nd edition, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1932. Reprinted, Arnold Isenberg (ed.), Victor Kestenbaum (Preface), Irvington Publishers, New&nbsp;York, NY, 1980. * Dummett, M. (1991), ''Frege and Other Philosophers'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. * Dummett, M. (1993), ''Origins of Analytical Philosophy'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. * Foucault, M. (1997), ''Essential Works of Foucault, 1954&ndash;1984, Volume&nbsp;1, Ethics : Subjectivity and Truth'', Paul Rabinow (ed.), Robert Hurley et al. (trans.), The New Press, New&nbsp;York, NY. * Gadamer, H.-G. (1986), ''The Idea of the Good in Platonic&ndash;Aristotelian Philosophy'', P. Christopher Smith (trans.), Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. 1st published, ''Die Idee des Guten zwischen Plato und Aristoteles'', J.C.B. Mohr, Heidelberg, Germany, 1978. * Grover, Dorothy (1992), ''A Prosentential Theory of Truth'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. * Habermas, J. (1979), ''Communication and the Evolution of Society'', Thomas McCarthy (trans.), Beacon Press, Boston, MA. * Habermas, J. (1990), ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action'', Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen (trans.), Thomas McCarthy (intro.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. * Habermas, J. (2003), ''Truth and Justification'', Barbara Fultner (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. * Kirkham, R.L. (1992), ''Theories of Truth'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. * Kripke, S.A. (1975), &ldquo;An Outline of a Theory of Truth&rdquo;, ''Journal of Philosophy'' 72 (1975), 690?716. * Kripke, S.A. (1980), ''Naming and Necessity'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. * Lewis, C.I. (1946), ''An Analysis of Knowledge and Valuation'', The Paul Carus Lectures, Series&nbsp;8, Open Court, La Salle, IL. * Linsky, L. (ed., 1971), ''Reference and Modality'', Oxford University Press, London, UK. * Martin, R.L. (ed., 1984), ''Recent Essays on Truth and the Liar Paradox'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. * Moody, E.A. (1953), ''Truth and Consequence in Mediaeval Logic'', North-Holland, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1953. Reprinted, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1976. * Nietzsche, Friedrich (1873/1968). &ldquo;Uber Wahrheit und Lüge im aussermoralischen Sinn&rdquo;, (&ldquo;On Truth and Lying in an Extra-moral Sense&rdquo;), in Jürgen Habermas (ed.), ''Erkenntnistheoretische Schriften'', Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, Germany. * Putnam, Hilary (1981), ''Reason, Truth, and History'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. * Quine, W.V. (1982), ''Methods of Logic'', (1st ed. 1950), (2nd ed. 1959), (3rd ed. 1972), 4th edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. * Quine, W.V. (1992), ''Pursuit of Truth'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1990. Revised edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992. * Quine, W.V., and Ullian, J.S. (1978), ''The Web of Belief'', Random House, New York, NY, 1970. 2nd edition, Random House, New York, NY, 1978. * Rawls, J. (2000), ''Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy'', Barbara Herman (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. * Rescher, N. (1973), ''The Coherence Theory of Truth'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. * Rorty, R. (1991), ''Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth : Philosophical Papers, Volume 1'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. * Russell, B. (1913), ''Theory of Knowledge (The 1913 Manuscript)'', Elizabeth Ramsden Eames (ed.), Kenneth Blackwell (collab.), George Allen & Unwin, 1984. Reprinted, Routledge, London, UK, 1992. * Russell, B. (1940), ''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth'', 'The William James Lectures for 1940 Delivered at Harvard University', George Allen & Unwin, 1950. Reprinted, Thomas Baldwin (intro.), Routledge, London, UK, 1992. * Salmon, N., and [[Scott Soames|Soames, Scott]] (eds., 1988), ''Propositions and Attitudes'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. * Smart, N. (1969), ''The Religious Experience of Mankind'', Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, NY. * Tarski, A. (1944), &ldquo;The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundations of Semantics&rdquo;, ''Philosophy and Phenomenological Research'' 4 (3), 341&ndash;376. * Wallace, A.F.C.]] (1966), ''Religion, An Anthropological View'', Random House, New York, NY. * Williams, B. (2002), ''Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. ==Syllabus== ===Focal nodes=== * [[Inquiry Live]] * [[Logic Live]] ===Peer nodes=== * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Truth_theory Truth Theory @ InterSciWiki] * [http://ref.subwiki.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory @ Subject Wikis] * [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory @ Wikiversity] * [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory @ Wikiversity Beta] ===Logical operators=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Exclusive disjunction]] * [[Logical conjunction]] * [[Logical disjunction]] * [[Logical equality]] {{col-break}} * [[Logical implication]] * [[Logical NAND]] * [[Logical NNOR]] * [[Logical negation|Negation]] {{col-end}} ===Related topics=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Ampheck]] * [[Boolean domain]] * [[Boolean function]] * [[Boolean-valued function]] * [[Differential logic]] * [[Epistemology]] {{col-break}} * [[Logical graph]] * [[Minimal negation operator]] * [[Multigrade operator]] * [[Parametric operator]] * [[Peirce's law]] {{col-break}} * [[Propositional calculus]] * [[Sole sufficient operator]] * [[Truth table]] * [[Universe of discourse]] * [[Zeroth order logic]] {{col-end}} ===Relational concepts=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Continuous predicate]] * [[Hypostatic abstraction]] * [[Logic of relatives]] * [[Logical matrix]] {{col-break}} * [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]] * [[Relation composition]] * [[Relation construction]] * [[Relation reduction]] {{col-break}} * [[Relation theory]] * [[Relative term]] * [[Sign relation]] * [[Triadic relation]] {{col-end}} ===Information, Inquiry=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Inquiry]] * [[Dynamics of inquiry]] {{col-break}} * [[Semeiotic]] * [[Logic of information]] {{col-break}} * [[Descriptive science]] * [[Normative science]] {{col-break}} * [[Pragmatic maxim]] * [[Truth theory]] {{col-end}} ===Related articles=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Semiotic_Information Semiotic Information] * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Futures_Of_Logical_Graphs Futures Of Logical Graphs] * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Propositional_Equation_Reasoning_Systems Propositional Equation Reasoning Systems] {{col-break}} * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Logic_:_Introduction Differential Logic : Introduction] * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Propositional_Calculus Differential Propositional Calculus] * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Logic_and_Dynamic_Systems_2.0 Differential Logic and Dynamic Systems] {{col-break}} * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Introduction_to_Inquiry_Driven_Systems Introduction to Inquiry Driven Systems] * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Prospects_for_Inquiry_Driven_Systems Prospects for Inquiry Driven Systems] * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Inquiry_Driven_Systems Inquiry Driven Systems : Inquiry Into Inquiry] {{col-end}} ==Document history== Portions of the above article were adapted from the following sources under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], under other applicable licenses, or by permission of the copyright holders. * [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Truth_theory Truth Theory], [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/ InterSciWiki] * [http://semanticweb.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory], [http://semanticweb.org/ Semantic Web] * [http://ref.subwiki.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory], [http://ref.subwiki.org/ Subject Wikis] * [http://wikinfo.org/w/index.php/Truth_theory Truth Theory], [http://wikinfo.org/w/ Wikinfo] * [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory], [http://en.wikiversity.org/ Wikiversity] * [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Truth_theory Truth Theory], [http://beta.wikiversity.org/ Wikiversity Beta] * [http://web.archive.org/web/20060913000000/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_Theory Truth Theory], [http://en.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia] This article contains material from an earlier version of the former Wikipedia article, [http://web.archive.org/web/20060913000000/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_Theory Truth Theory], no longer extant. The Wikipedia article was deleted and its edit history destroyed by Wikipedia administrators, in violation of the GNU Free Documentation License. A record of the Wikipedia AFD (Article For Deletion) proceedings can be found at the following locations: {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Truth_theory&oldid=54630517 1st AFD proceeding] {{col-break}} * [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Truth_theory(2)&oldid=71295142 2nd AFD proceeding] {{col-break}} * [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Truth_theory_(3rd_nomination)&oldid=81774680 3rd AFD proceeding] {{col-end}} [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] [[Category:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[Category:Critical thinking]] [[Category:Cybernetics]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Hermeneutics]] [[Category:Information Systems]] [[Category:Inquiry]] [[Category:Intelligence Amplification]] [[Category:Learning Organizations]] [[Category:Knowledge Representation]] [[Category:Logic]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Pragmatics]] [[Category:Pragmatism]] [[Category:Semantics]] [[Category:Semiotics]] [[Category:Systems science]] p8y7kgll6rxgpfkgfdv97qdo7dzgqoc 0 212733 2830237 2827944 2026-09-01T16:26:55Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2830237 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260831.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] rwkdihccdjl5p06aspqt9nbxq9e79nk 2830239 2830237 2026-09-01T16:29:33Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2830239 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260901.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] 7gbhp13kz2lknzr12dnxdhsmi4xnwg0 2830455 2830239 2026-09-02T11:20:38Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2830455 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260902.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] 1jciaxom890aaphrmr5cho5ykgytq8u 2 215188 2830236 2830120 2026-09-01T16:26:15Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Some */ 2830236 wikitext text/x-wiki Ideas to possibly develop or integrate into various areas later. ==Some ideas to explore or elaborate on later== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Python]] * [[Business/Earning money]] * [[National University of Singapore]] * [[Peking University]] * [[Tsinghua University]] * [[Archaeology of Specific Peoples and Civilizations]] * [[Syllabi]] * [[Teaching]] * [[Analyzing research]] * [[Research analysis]] * [[Research studies]] * [[Courses]] * [[Learning]] * [[Statistical analysis]] * [[Peer to peer]] * [[p2p]] / [[P2P]] * [[Mesh networks]] * [[Permissionless software]] * [[CI/DC]] * [[Coolify]] * [[Prompts]] * [[Agentic AI]] * [[AI research]] * [[Research with AI]] * [[Becoming a lawyer]] {{colend}} ==Some more - diversity of thought == {{colbegin|3}} * [[Diversity of thought]] * [[w:Diversity ideologies|Diversity ideologies]] * [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]] * [[w:Diversity (business)|Diversity (business)]] * [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]] * [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]] * [[w:Neurodiversity|Neurodiversity]] * [[w:Diversity (politics)|Diversity (politics)]] * [[w:Unity in diversity|Unity in diversity]] * [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]] * [[w:Gender diversity|Gender diversity]] * [[w:Multicultural and diversity management|Multicultural and diversity management]] * [[w:Team diversity|Team diversity]] {{colend}} ===External=== {{colbegin|2}} * [https://mtprof.msun.edu/Spr2007/fish.html Intellectual Diversity: What Is It and Do We Need It?] * [https://roth.blogs.wesleyan.edu/tag/intellectual-diversity/ Intellectual Diversity] * [https://tigerlearn.fhsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/Intellectual-Diversity-in-HE.pdf Intellectual Diversity in Higher Education] * [https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2023/12/20/free-speech-and-intellectual-diversity/ Free Speech and Intellectual Diversity] * [https://itsapps.odu.edu/ao/facultyhandbook/index.php?page=ch02s48.html Resolution Supporting Intellectual Diversity] * [https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/exec-ed/difference/cognitive-diversity Cognitive Diversity: Know How to Harness It — And When to Rein It In — To Help Your Team Succeed] * [https://online.merrimack.edu/cognitive-diversity-in-education/ Cognitive Diversity in Education] * [https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/scottepage/research-2/diversity-research/ Diversity Research] * [https://www.chapman.edu/diversity/news-and-events/cognitive-diversity/index.aspx Cognitive Diversity: Embracing Difference] * [https://scholarworks.uttyler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=hrd_grad Enhancing the Cohesiveness of a Cognitive Diverse Team: the Role of Leadership] * [https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI30505255/ Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams] ** [https://www.proquest.com/docview/2838332291 Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams] * [https://cache.kzoo.edu/items/195fd798-9778-48f1-9fc5-d6c1dc47cec5 Modeling Cognitive Diversity] * [https://jme.bmj.com/content/44/11/751 Artificial womb technology and the frontiers of human reproduction: conceptual differences and potential implications] {{colend}} rdcjo7ivz5pm4cwp7tzr0w0oguadpp5 2 216087 2830247 2471037 2026-09-01T16:56:52Z Michael Ten 654933 2830247 wikitext text/x-wiki == Prompt examples for learning == "is the question worded awkwardly? Are there pathways to become a bar certified lawyer in The United States without going to law school?" AI suggested this instead, "Can you become a licensed lawyer in the US without going to law school?" Then I edit my question to improve it... "Are there pathways to become a bar licensed lawyer in The United States without going to law school?" Then I ask AI - Is this better, "Are there pathways to become a bar licensed lawyer in The United States without going to law school?" AI replies, "'Bar' functions as the organization/exam, and "licensed" stands on its own. Lawyers are simply called licensed attorneys or licensed lawyers, not "bar licensed lawyers." Then i reply, "Are there pathways to become a licensed lawyer through a state Bar in The United States without going to law school?" is that better? DO NOT NITPIK. MY VOICE [because AI will often nitpick wording] Then AI stops bothering me about, and in my own judgement, my wording now seems reasonable enough. AI replied, "Yes, that works well. It flows naturally in your voice, uses the standard phrasing ("licensed lawyer"), and gets your exact meaning across without ambiguity." == Learning links for later === Learning links for potential future inclusion/development can go here for me. * [[Hypervelocity Landing Track]] * [http://www.scottsantens.com/basic-income-faq Basic income FAQ] * [[Wikipedia:Music Modernization Act]] * [[:Category:Documenting crony capitalism]] ==Learning related ChatGPT prompts to maybe try== * Here is a suggested ChatGPT prompt: "What are some open source ChatGPT alternatives?" (withquotes). ChatGPT just listed 6 of such open source alternatives. I wrote that prompt myself! Limitless peace. pg69htbiyopjvqhl0co7jbblgin5m70 2830250 2830247 2026-09-01T16:59:13Z Michael Ten 654933 added == Large language model (LLM/AI) prompt ideas / discussion questions == 2830250 wikitext text/x-wiki == Prompt examples for learning == "is the question worded awkwardly? Are there pathways to become a bar certified lawyer in The United States without going to law school?" AI suggested this instead, "Can you become a licensed lawyer in the US without going to law school?" Then I edit my question to improve it... "Are there pathways to become a bar licensed lawyer in The United States without going to law school?" Then I ask AI - Is this better, "Are there pathways to become a bar licensed lawyer in The United States without going to law school?" AI replies, "'Bar' functions as the organization/exam, and "licensed" stands on its own. Lawyers are simply called licensed attorneys or licensed lawyers, not "bar licensed lawyers." Then i reply, "Are there pathways to become a licensed lawyer through a state Bar in The United States without going to law school?" is that better? DO NOT NITPIK. MY VOICE [because AI will often nitpick wording] Then AI stops bothering me about, and in my own judgement, my wording now seems reasonable enough. AI replied, "Yes, that works well. It flows naturally in your voice, uses the standard phrasing ("licensed lawyer"), and gets your exact meaning across without ambiguity." == Learning links for later === Learning links for potential future inclusion/development can go here for me. * [[Hypervelocity Landing Track]] * [http://www.scottsantens.com/basic-income-faq Basic income FAQ] * [[Wikipedia:Music Modernization Act]] * [[:Category:Documenting crony capitalism]] ==Learning related ChatGPT prompts to maybe try== * Here is a suggested ChatGPT prompt: "What are some open source ChatGPT alternatives?" (withquotes). ChatGPT just listed 6 of such open source alternatives. I wrote that prompt myself! Limitless peace. == Large language model (LLM/AI) prompt ideas / discussion questions == TBD... e99evooneupa3ldiisg59sf6016pxr4 0 218146 2830387 2829003 2026-09-02T04:47:07Z Jtneill 10242 /* Basic psychological needs */ 2830387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory}} ==Overview== Self-determination theory (SDT) consists of six related sub-theories that explain different aspects of motivation and psychological well-being based on an organismic dialectic approach (Deci & Ryan, 2000): * '''Cognitive evaluation theory''' (CET): Focuses on how external rewards and feedback influence intrinsic motivation, emphasising the role of autonomy and competence. * '''Organismic integration theory''' (OIT): Provides a taxonomy of motivation which describes a spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, highlighting the processes through which external motivations can become internalised. * '''Basic psychological needs theory''' (BPNT): Explains that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for psychological growth, well-being, and optimal functioning. * '''Causality orientations theory''' (COT): Examines individual differences in motivational orientation, identifying three types: autonomy-oriented, control-oriented, and impersonally-oriented. * '''Goal contents theory''' (GCT): Differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, noting how they impact well-being and motivation. * '''Relationships motivation theory''' (RMT): Explores the importance of satisfying relationships and how they contribute to fulfilling the need for relatedness, thereby influencing motivation and well-being. ==Basic psychological needs== '''Basic psychological needs''' theory suggests three important ingredients for psychological well-being and which foster [[intrinsic motivation]]: * '''Autonomy''' - Having a sense of personal control over life circumstances * '''Competence''' - Having sufficient skill and knowledge to handle life circumstances * '''Relatedness''' - Having at least some warm, positive, supportive relationships [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|center|400px]] ==Taxonomy== [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]'s taxonomy of motivation describes a motivational spectrum that includes [[amotivation]], four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px]] ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) [[Category:Self-determination theory]] 9vj9i193cp9xm07tbwrmcnbhb614utx 2830389 2830387 2026-09-02T04:49:24Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ Expand 2830389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory}} ==Overview== Self-determination theory (SDT) consists of six related sub-theories that explain different aspects of motivation and psychological well-being based on an organismic dialectic approach (Deci & Ryan, 2000): * '''Cognitive evaluation theory''' (CET): Focuses on how external rewards and feedback influence intrinsic motivation, emphasising the role of autonomy and competence. * '''Organismic integration theory''' (OIT): Provides a taxonomy of motivation which describes a spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, highlighting the processes through which external motivations can become internalised. * '''Basic psychological needs theory''' (BPNT): Explains that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for psychological growth, well-being, and optimal functioning. * '''Causality orientations theory''' (COT): Examines individual differences in motivational orientation, identifying three types: autonomy-oriented, control-oriented, and impersonally-oriented. * '''Goal contents theory''' (GCT): Differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, noting how they impact well-being and motivation. * '''Relationships motivation theory''' (RMT): Explores the importance of satisfying relationships and how they contribute to fulfilling the need for relatedness, thereby influencing motivation and well-being. ==Basic psychological needs== '''Basic psychological needs''' theory suggests three important ingredients for psychological well-being and which foster [[intrinsic motivation]]: * '''Autonomy''' - Having a sense of personal control over life circumstances * '''Competence''' - Having sufficient skill and knowledge to handle life circumstances * '''Relatedness''' - Having at least some warm, positive, supportive relationships [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|center|400px]] ==Taxonomy== [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]'s taxonomy of motivation describes a motivational spectrum that includes [[amotivation]], four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px]] ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion lecture) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion tutorial) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) [[Category:Self-determination theory]] 5zu4miojl2rxx1py00mwsq8vmuff0wo 2830390 2830389 2026-09-02T04:49:53Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ 2830390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory}} ==Overview== Self-determination theory (SDT) consists of six related sub-theories that explain different aspects of motivation and psychological well-being based on an organismic dialectic approach (Deci & Ryan, 2000): * '''Cognitive evaluation theory''' (CET): Focuses on how external rewards and feedback influence intrinsic motivation, emphasising the role of autonomy and competence. * '''Organismic integration theory''' (OIT): Provides a taxonomy of motivation which describes a spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, highlighting the processes through which external motivations can become internalised. * '''Basic psychological needs theory''' (BPNT): Explains that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for psychological growth, well-being, and optimal functioning. * '''Causality orientations theory''' (COT): Examines individual differences in motivational orientation, identifying three types: autonomy-oriented, control-oriented, and impersonally-oriented. * '''Goal contents theory''' (GCT): Differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, noting how they impact well-being and motivation. * '''Relationships motivation theory''' (RMT): Explores the importance of satisfying relationships and how they contribute to fulfilling the need for relatedness, thereby influencing motivation and well-being. ==Basic psychological needs== '''Basic psychological needs''' theory suggests three important ingredients for psychological well-being and which foster [[intrinsic motivation]]: * '''Autonomy''' - Having a sense of personal control over life circumstances * '''Competence''' - Having sufficient skill and knowledge to handle life circumstances * '''Relatedness''' - Having at least some warm, positive, supportive relationships [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|center|400px]] ==Taxonomy== [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]'s taxonomy of motivation describes a motivational spectrum that includes [[amotivation]], four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px]] ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion lecture) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion tutorial) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) [[Category:Self-determination theory]] n5a6qa68j3gvkhza8tcxukpa1fih3yx 2830391 2830390 2026-09-02T05:03:16Z Jtneill 10242 /* Overview */ + image 2830391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory}} ==Overview== Self-determination theory (SDT) consists of six related sub-theories that explain different aspects of motivation and psychological well-being based on an organismic dialectic approach (Deci & Ryan, 2000), ==Macro-theory== The six SDT theories are: * '''Cognitive evaluation theory''' (CET): Focuses on how external rewards and feedback influence intrinsic motivation, emphasising the role of autonomy and competence. * '''Organismic integration theory''' (OIT): Provides a taxonomy of motivation which describes a spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, highlighting the processes through which external motivations can become internalised. * '''Basic psychological needs theory''' (BPNT): Explains that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for psychological growth, well-being, and optimal functioning. * '''Causality orientations theory''' (COT): Examines individual differences in motivational orientation, identifying three types: autonomy-oriented, control-oriented, and impersonally-oriented. * '''Goal contents theory''' (GCT): Differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, noting how they impact well-being and motivation. * '''Relationships motivation theory''' (RMT): Explores the importance of satisfying relationships and how they contribute to fulfilling the need for relatedness, thereby influencing motivation and well-being. [[File:SDT macrotheory.png|600px|center]] ==Basic psychological needs== '''Basic psychological needs''' theory suggests three important ingredients for psychological well-being and which foster [[intrinsic motivation]]: * '''Autonomy''' - Having a sense of personal control over life circumstances * '''Competence''' - Having sufficient skill and knowledge to handle life circumstances * '''Relatedness''' - Having at least some warm, positive, supportive relationships [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|center|400px]] ==Taxonomy== [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]'s taxonomy of motivation describes a motivational spectrum that includes [[amotivation]], four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px]] ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion lecture) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion tutorial) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) [[Category:Self-determination theory]] 62avaz3ueb2papnrxjbmrojtbw2uzft 2830392 2830391 2026-09-02T05:03:53Z Jtneill 10242 /* Basic psychological needs */ 2830392 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory}} ==Overview== Self-determination theory (SDT) consists of six related sub-theories that explain different aspects of motivation and psychological well-being based on an organismic dialectic approach (Deci & Ryan, 2000), ==Macro-theory== The six SDT theories are: * '''Cognitive evaluation theory''' (CET): Focuses on how external rewards and feedback influence intrinsic motivation, emphasising the role of autonomy and competence. * '''Organismic integration theory''' (OIT): Provides a taxonomy of motivation which describes a spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, highlighting the processes through which external motivations can become internalised. * '''Basic psychological needs theory''' (BPNT): Explains that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for psychological growth, well-being, and optimal functioning. * '''Causality orientations theory''' (COT): Examines individual differences in motivational orientation, identifying three types: autonomy-oriented, control-oriented, and impersonally-oriented. * '''Goal contents theory''' (GCT): Differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, noting how they impact well-being and motivation. * '''Relationships motivation theory''' (RMT): Explores the importance of satisfying relationships and how they contribute to fulfilling the need for relatedness, thereby influencing motivation and well-being. [[File:SDT macrotheory.png|600px|center]] ==Basic psychological needs theory== '''Basic psychological needs''' theory suggests three vital ingredients for psychological well-being and which foster [[intrinsic motivation]]: * '''Autonomy''' - Having a sense of personal control over life circumstances * '''Competence''' - Having sufficient skill and knowledge to handle life circumstances * '''Relatedness''' - Having at least some warm, positive, supportive relationships [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|center|400px]] ==Taxonomy== [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]'s taxonomy of motivation describes a motivational spectrum that includes [[amotivation]], four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px]] ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion lecture) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion tutorial) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) [[Category:Self-determination theory]] d2ui3obdx5akkkcuniztyjukb4kli2c 2830393 2830392 2026-09-02T05:04:53Z Jtneill 10242 /* Taxonomy */ 2830393 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory}} ==Overview== Self-determination theory (SDT) consists of six related sub-theories that explain different aspects of motivation and psychological well-being based on an organismic dialectic approach (Deci & Ryan, 2000), ==Macro-theory== The six SDT theories are: * '''Cognitive evaluation theory''' (CET): Focuses on how external rewards and feedback influence intrinsic motivation, emphasising the role of autonomy and competence. * '''Organismic integration theory''' (OIT): Provides a taxonomy of motivation which describes a spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, highlighting the processes through which external motivations can become internalised. * '''Basic psychological needs theory''' (BPNT): Explains that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for psychological growth, well-being, and optimal functioning. * '''Causality orientations theory''' (COT): Examines individual differences in motivational orientation, identifying three types: autonomy-oriented, control-oriented, and impersonally-oriented. * '''Goal contents theory''' (GCT): Differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, noting how they impact well-being and motivation. * '''Relationships motivation theory''' (RMT): Explores the importance of satisfying relationships and how they contribute to fulfilling the need for relatedness, thereby influencing motivation and well-being. [[File:SDT macrotheory.png|600px|center]] ==Basic psychological needs theory== '''Basic psychological needs''' theory suggests three vital ingredients for psychological well-being and which foster [[intrinsic motivation]]: * '''Autonomy''' - Having a sense of personal control over life circumstances * '''Competence''' - Having sufficient skill and knowledge to handle life circumstances * '''Relatedness''' - Having at least some warm, positive, supportive relationships [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|center|400px]] ==Organismic integration theory== [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]'s taxonomy of motivation describes a motivational spectrum that includes [[amotivation]], four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px]] ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion lecture) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] (Motivation and emotion tutorial) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) [[Category:Self-determination theory]] 8g7nz7tm9bd34iqjn33gcq716j3gec8 0 221576 2830198 2830197 2026-09-01T12:07:47Z Jtneill 10242 Autonomy support 2830198 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to self-determination theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours''' (based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ! Consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | Take the other person;s perspective |- | Introduce extrinsic incentives | Invite the other to pursue a personal interest |- | Utter directives without explanations | Provide explanatory rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, and self-worth concerns | Support valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter and try to change negative feelings | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use pressuring language | Use invitational language |- | Push for immediate compliance | Display patience |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [Lecture 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] tr05ol59hghn1oaa2e6vrsauwkbxizu 2830199 2830198 2026-09-01T12:08:14Z Jtneill 10242 /* Autonomy support */ 2830199 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to self-determination theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy. {| class="wikitable" |+ Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours<br>(based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ! Consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | Take the other person;s perspective |- | Introduce extrinsic incentives | Invite the other to pursue a personal interest |- | Utter directives without explanations | Provide explanatory rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, and self-worth concerns | Support valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter and try to change negative feelings | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use pressuring language | Use invitational language |- | Push for immediate compliance | Display patience |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [Lecture 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] h72rsn3podvqzxl03zu5ck6zcgo2uxk 2830200 2830199 2026-09-01T12:08:44Z Jtneill 10242 /* Autonomy support */ 2830200 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to self-determination theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy. {| class="wikitable" |+ Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours<br>(based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ! Consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | Take the other person's perspective |- | Introduce extrinsic incentives | Invite the other to pursue a personal interest |- | Utter directives without explanations | Provide explanatory rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, and self-worth concerns | Support valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter and try to change negative feelings | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use pressuring language | Use invitational language |- | Push for immediate compliance | Display patience |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [Lecture 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] 29vbk0c633dkmvq47bulx3ay6q9dx6i 2830379 2830200 2026-09-02T04:20:50Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ Update for 2026 2830379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to self-determination theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy. {| class="wikitable" |+ Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours<br>(based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ! Consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | Take the other person's perspective |- | Introduce extrinsic incentives | Invite the other to pursue a personal interest |- | Utter directives without explanations | Provide explanatory rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, and self-worth concerns | Support valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter and try to change negative feelings | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use pressuring language | Use invitational language |- | Push for immediate compliance | Display patience |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7963127abebe472db4c7ea15946b9d3e Lecture 4] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] 1hmbsrgw4tan7dwvo4p0ioykmxx0lvr 2830394 2830379 2026-09-02T05:06:07Z Jtneill 10242 /* Overview */ 2830394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to [[self-determination theory]] (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy. {| class="wikitable" |+ Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours<br>(based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ! Consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | Take the other person's perspective |- | Introduce extrinsic incentives | Invite the other to pursue a personal interest |- | Utter directives without explanations | Provide explanatory rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, and self-worth concerns | Support valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter and try to change negative feelings | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use pressuring language | Use invitational language |- | Push for immediate compliance | Display patience |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7963127abebe472db4c7ea15946b9d3e Lecture 4] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] 6mqwffckfvcpxgiudryg1rqvawmk7gp 2830396 2830394 2026-09-02T05:15:14Z Jtneill 10242 /* Autonomy support */ Adjust wording 2830396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to [[self-determination theory]] (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy (see Table 1 for examples). '''Table 1'''. Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours (based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ... ! ... consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | Take the other person's perspective |- | Use extrinsic incentives | Invite the other to pursue their interests |- | Give directives without explanations | Provide meaningful rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, or self-worth concerns | Support personal valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter or try to change negative feelings | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use controlling language | Use non-pressuring, invitational language |- | Pressure for immediate compliance | Display patience; allow time for self-initiation |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7963127abebe472db4c7ea15946b9d3e Lecture 4] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] his89doi4rz35prqwcv5j6oaklnk0y8 2830397 2830396 2026-09-02T05:18:20Z Jtneill 10242 /* Autonomy support */ Add arrow to table 2830397 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 4: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]] This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of: * a taxonomy of motivation which includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation * psychological needs according to [[self-determination theory]] (autonomy, competence, relatedness) Key question: What is the "secret sauce" for unlocking "intrinsic motivation"? Take-home messages: * Intrinsic motivation usually produces better outcomes than extrinsic motivation * The more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation * Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness ==Outline== Extrinsic motivation and internalisation * Extrinsic motivation * Incentives and consequences * Hidden costs of reward * Cognitive evaluation theory * Intrinsic motivation * Types of extrinsic motivation * Internalisation and integration * Motivating others on uninteresting activities Psychological needs * Psychological needs * Need frustration * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness ==Autonomy support== One of the most powerful ways to engage someone's intrinsic motivation is to support their experience of the basic psychological need for autonomy (see Table 1 for examples). '''Table 1'''. Autonomy-Supportive Alternatives to Controlling Behaviours (based on Reeve (2024, p. 98) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ... ! ! ... consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | → | Take the other person's perspective |- | Use extrinsic incentives | → | Invite the other to pursue their interests |- | Give directives without explanations | → | Provide meaningful rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | → | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, or self-worth concerns | → | Support personal valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter or try to change negative feelings | → | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use controlling language | → | Use non-pressuring, invitational language |- | Pressure for immediate compliance | → | Display patience; allow time for self-initiation |} ==Multimedia== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): What are the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace? External motivators such as money are useful, up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): Describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reactions. The amount of control and effort we exert influences how much we value the outcome. ==Readings== * Chapter 6: Extrinsic motivation and internalization ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) * Chapter 5: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides) * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare) 2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation & psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== ;Wikipedia * [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] * [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Extrinsic motivation]] * [[/Images/]] * [[Intrinsic motivation]] * [[Psychological needs]] * [[Self-determination theory]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7963127abebe472db4c7ea15946b9d3e Lecture 4] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2a93b1df5ee7476baf0e060cd2daf8a5 Lecture 4] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/33a40d59c9014ef38f6e7b767bf1bd49 Lecture 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/95fc9e2ff7fe45148b7b1a8145816bcc Lecture 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 4] (2021) --> ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ayelet_fishbach_how_to_set_the_right_goals_and_stay_motivated How to set the right goals and stay motivated] (Ayelet Fishbach, TEDxChicago, October 2023, 17:04 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] f7cytqlfevuliyzixbzgikaho8jeb81 0 221601 2830292 2827106 2026-09-01T20:50:11Z U3281503 3106990 added template 2830292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Topic development — Guidelines}} <div style="text-align: center;">''Develop a chapter plan and user page'' <!-- ---------------------------------- ---> <!-- Count down --> <!-- ---------------------------------- ---><!-- {{countdown |year = 2025 |month = 08 |day = 14 |hour = 23 |minute = 0 |second = 0 |event = this assessment is due }} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --> <!-- Show this during semester -->{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}</div> {{TOCright}} ==Overview== * Weight: 10% * Due {{/Due}} * Tasks ** Create a Wikiversity user account. ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Select or negotiate]] an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]. ** Build wiki editing skills. ** Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] on Wikiversity which consists of: *** Title and sub-title *** Headings (and possibly sub-headings) *** Key points for each section (and sub-section) *** Figure (at least 1) *** Learning feature (plan at least 1) *** References (6+ relevant, high quality sources) *** Resources (2+ see also and 2+ external links) ** Create a Wikiversity user page: *** Introduce yourself *** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page * Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. * Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] ==Purpose== The primary purpose of the topic development is to share your ideas and plans to date, enabling feedback that can help refine and strengthen the book chapter. The secondary purpose is to encourage development of collaborative wiki editing skills. ==Marking and feedback== *Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]. *Marks will be provided via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} by Census Date (end of Week 4). * Written feedback to help guide [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] drafting will be provided via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page. *Follow up with the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] if you have any questions. ==Extensions and late submissions== * Apply for extension using the unit's online Extension Application Form (see {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}) with appropriate documentary evidence. * Submissions will be accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late). * If you don't submit this assessment, withdrawal from the unit by Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended. ==Learning outcomes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- style="vertical-align:top;" | style="width:40%;" | '''Learning outcome''' | style="width:60%;" | '''Assessment task''' |- style="vertical-align:top;" | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour. | Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic. |- style="vertical-align:top;" | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field. | Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. |} ==Graduate attributes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- ! style="width:20%;" | Category ! style="width:20%;" | Graduate attribute ! style="width:60%;" | Assessment task |- | rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be professional''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate effectively | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload | style="vertical-align:top;" | Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a lifelong learner''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Evaluate and adopt new technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment. |} ==Instructions== The topic development should communicate your current thinking and plans for the project. It is not expected to be a fully developed or final product. Outline your ideas as they currently stand, even if these are still evolving. Focus on clearly communicating the proposed direction so that constructive feedback can be provided. The following instructions should be used to guide the topic development: * Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of: *# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiated]]) *# Overview *# 3 to 5 other top-level headings (subheadings are optional) *#* Key points for each heading and subheading, with citations *#* 1+ relevant figure(s) *#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature *# Conclusion *# See also *#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article) *# References (at least 6, which are cited) *# External links *#* 2+ external links (to external resources) *# Wikiversity user page *#* Self-introduction *#* A link to the chapter being worked on *#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence: *#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present) *#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present) *#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement * <span id="Word count">Length (Word count):</span> There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700). * Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments ==Template== {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} ==Marking criteria== [[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]] Topic developments will be marked against the following criteria. {{anchor|Title}} ===Title and sub-title (10%)=== * Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}) * Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] * Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history {{anchor|Headings}} ===Headings (10%)=== * Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links) * Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading. * The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions * Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]) {{anchor|Overview}} ===Overview (10%)=== * A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]] * At least 3 bullet points outlining the "problem" (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] * 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]] {{anchor|Key points}} ===Key points (10%)=== * At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading) * Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations * Overview the most relevant research, including key citations * Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections * Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title) {{Anchor|Figure}} ===Figure (10%)=== * Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]]. * Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.) * Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1) * Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small) {{Anchor|Learning feature}} ===Learning feature (10%)=== * In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features: ** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]] ** Internal (wiki) links: *** At least 1 embedded link (i.e., in main body text) to a relevant book chapter, and *** At least 1 embedded link (i.e., in main body text) to a relevant Wikipedia article ** Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers ** Table with an APA style caption {{anchor|References}} ===References (10%)=== * Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]]) * Each source should be cited at least once in the key points * Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles {{anchor|Resources}} ===Resources (10%)=== * '''See also''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article) ** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed: *** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter *** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page ** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023) ** Use alphabetical order * '''External links''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources ** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles) ** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation) ** Use alphabetical order {{anchor|User page}} ===User page (10%)=== * Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account * Edit the user page to provide information about yourself * Recommended headings: ** About me ** Book chapter I'm working on *** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page ** Social contributions * Consider linking to your other online profiles {{anchor|Social contribution}} {{anchor|Socialcontribution}} ===Social contribution (10%)=== * On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions: *# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics) *# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics) *# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum<!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --> * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]] == Marking rubric== {{Notice|1=[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}} ==Examples== ;About * Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100% * The links go to snapshots of topic pages and user pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions * It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter) ;2025 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&oldid=2727975 U3254978] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&oldid=2739659 U3237996] ;2024 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&oldid=2644098 U3216883] ;2023 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&oldid=2550752 U3227684] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&oldid=2552580 U3223114] <!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides. ;2022 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&oldid=2420008 U3203545] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&oldid=2419862 U3210431] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&oldid=2420416 U3216256] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&oldid=2420715 U3217287] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&oldid=2418874 Molzaroid] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&oldid=2420232 Ana028] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&oldid=2418246 U3211603] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&oldid=2417630 U3223109] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&oldid=2420956 U3213441] ;2021 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&action=history U3186377] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&action=history U3202904] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&oldid=2313868 U3194166] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&oldid=2313844 U3187741] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&oldid=2310813 U3187874] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&oldid=2312677 U3202854] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&oldid=2311466 U3187178] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&oldid=2311388 J.Payten] ;2020 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&oldid=2191350 U3170940] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&oldid=2198005 U3190210] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&oldid=2198079 U3160224] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&oldid=2194797 U3190467] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371] ;2019 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&oldid=2051716 U3172958] ;2018 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&oldid=1915671 U3160212] ;2017 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&oldid=1730836 U3122707] --> ==Licensing== Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener. ==See also== * Structure ** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]] ** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]] * Marking and feedback ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]] ** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]] ** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric] * Tutorials ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 1: Topic selection]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2: Wiki editing]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]] {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]] {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Introduce the topic with a scenario Begin with an engaging scenario, example, or case study that illustrates the topic and gives readers a reason to care about it. The scenario should: * Start with a lead in bold, such as '''Scenario, Case study, Imagine this ...''', or another another phrase that suits the scenario. * Describe a '''realistic problem, situation, or question''' related to the topic. * Be engaging and accessible to a reader who is new to the topic. * Provide a context that can be revisited when explaining the psychological concepts and research later in the chapter. * Avoid explaining theory or research in detail— the purpose is to illustrate the problem, not solve it. * Be presented in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. * Include a relevant image, with a figure caption, to help illustrate the scenario. Cite the figure (e.g., see Figure 1) within the scenario. For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], the scenario can be planned using bullet-points. ;Feature box colour To change the feature-box colour: # Select Edit source # Find theme=3 # Change 3 to another theme number {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should consist of three parts: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Brief explanation of the problem, why it is important, and an outline of how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. The topic development submission should communicate your current thinking and plans for the project. It is not expected to be a fully developed or final product. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br> {{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Each chapter should use this standard heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== List [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]] (Wikiversity) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 8hv6gnimuf95w0zpe8zww9gmrq4l97l 2830324 2830292 2026-09-02T00:14:24Z Jtneill 10242 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/U3281503|U3281503]] ([[User_talk:U3281503|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2827106 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Topic development — Guidelines}} <div style="text-align: center;">''Develop a chapter plan and user page'' <!-- ---------------------------------- ---> <!-- Count down --> <!-- ---------------------------------- ---><!-- {{countdown |year = 2025 |month = 08 |day = 14 |hour = 23 |minute = 0 |second = 0 |event = this assessment is due }} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --> <!-- Show this during semester -->{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}</div> {{TOCright}} ==Overview== * Weight: 10% * Due {{/Due}} * Tasks ** Create a Wikiversity user account. ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Select or negotiate]] an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]. ** Build wiki editing skills. ** Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] on Wikiversity which consists of: *** Title and sub-title *** Headings (and possibly sub-headings) *** Key points for each section (and sub-section) *** Figure (at least 1) *** Learning feature (plan at least 1) *** References (6+ relevant, high quality sources) *** Resources (2+ see also and 2+ external links) ** Create a Wikiversity user page: *** Introduce yourself *** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page * Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. * Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] ==Purpose== The primary purpose of the topic development is to share your ideas and plans to date, enabling feedback that can help refine and strengthen the book chapter. The secondary purpose is to encourage development of collaborative wiki editing skills. ==Marking and feedback== *Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]. *Marks will be provided via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} by Census Date (end of Week 4). * Written feedback to help guide [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] drafting will be provided via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page. *Follow up with the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] if you have any questions. ==Extensions and late submissions== * Apply for extension using the unit's online Extension Application Form (see {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}) with appropriate documentary evidence. * Submissions will be accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late). * If you don't submit this assessment, withdrawal from the unit by Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended. ==Learning outcomes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- style="vertical-align:top;" | style="width:40%;" | '''Learning outcome''' | style="width:60%;" | '''Assessment task''' |- style="vertical-align:top;" | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour. | Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic. |- style="vertical-align:top;" | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field. | Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. |} ==Graduate attributes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- ! style="width:20%;" | Category ! style="width:20%;" | Graduate attribute ! style="width:60%;" | Assessment task |- | rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be professional''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate effectively | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload | style="vertical-align:top;" | Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a lifelong learner''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Evaluate and adopt new technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment. |} ==Instructions== The topic development should communicate your current thinking and plans for the project. It is not expected to be a fully developed or final product. Outline your ideas as they currently stand, even if these are still evolving. Focus on clearly communicating the proposed direction so that constructive feedback can be provided. The following instructions should be used to guide the topic development: * Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of: *# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiated]]) *# Overview *# 3 to 5 other top-level headings (subheadings are optional) *#* Key points for each heading and subheading, with citations *#* 1+ relevant figure(s) *#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature *# Conclusion *# See also *#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article) *# References (at least 6, which are cited) *# External links *#* 2+ external links (to external resources) *# Wikiversity user page *#* Self-introduction *#* A link to the chapter being worked on *#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence: *#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present) *#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present) *#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement * <span id="Word count">Length (Word count):</span> There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700). * Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments ==Template== {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} ==Marking criteria== [[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]] Topic developments will be marked against the following criteria. {{anchor|Title}} ===Title and sub-title (10%)=== * Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}) * Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] * Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history {{anchor|Headings}} ===Headings (10%)=== * Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links) * Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading. * The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions * Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]) {{anchor|Overview}} ===Overview (10%)=== * A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]] * At least 3 bullet points outlining the "problem" (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] * 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]] {{anchor|Key points}} ===Key points (10%)=== * At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading) * Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations * Overview the most relevant research, including key citations * Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections * Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title) {{Anchor|Figure}} ===Figure (10%)=== * Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]]. * Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.) * Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1) * Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small) {{Anchor|Learning feature}} ===Learning feature (10%)=== * In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features: ** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]] ** Internal (wiki) links: *** At least 1 embedded link (i.e., in main body text) to a relevant book chapter, and *** At least 1 embedded link (i.e., in main body text) to a relevant Wikipedia article ** Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers ** Table with an APA style caption {{anchor|References}} ===References (10%)=== * Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]]) * Each source should be cited at least once in the key points * Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles {{anchor|Resources}} ===Resources (10%)=== * '''See also''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article) ** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed: *** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter *** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page ** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023) ** Use alphabetical order * '''External links''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources ** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles) ** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation) ** Use alphabetical order {{anchor|User page}} ===User page (10%)=== * Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account * Edit the user page to provide information about yourself * Recommended headings: ** About me ** Book chapter I'm working on *** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page ** Social contributions * Consider linking to your other online profiles {{anchor|Social contribution}} {{anchor|Socialcontribution}} ===Social contribution (10%)=== * On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions: *# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics) *# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics) *# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum<!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --> * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]] == Marking rubric== {{Notice|1=[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}} ==Examples== ;About * Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100% * The links go to snapshots of topic pages and user pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions * It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter) ;2025 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&oldid=2727975 U3254978] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&oldid=2739659 U3237996] ;2024 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&oldid=2644098 U3216883] ;2023 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&oldid=2550752 U3227684] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&oldid=2552580 U3223114] <!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides. ;2022 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&oldid=2420008 U3203545] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&oldid=2419862 U3210431] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&oldid=2420416 U3216256] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&oldid=2420715 U3217287] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&oldid=2418874 Molzaroid] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&oldid=2420232 Ana028] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&oldid=2418246 U3211603] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&oldid=2417630 U3223109] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&oldid=2420956 U3213441] ;2021 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&action=history U3186377] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&action=history U3202904] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&oldid=2313868 U3194166] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&oldid=2313844 U3187741] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&oldid=2310813 U3187874] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&oldid=2312677 U3202854] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&oldid=2311466 U3187178] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&oldid=2311388 J.Payten] ;2020 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&oldid=2191350 U3170940] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&oldid=2198005 U3190210] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&oldid=2198079 U3160224] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&oldid=2194797 U3190467] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371] ;2019 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&oldid=2051716 U3172958] ;2018 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&oldid=1915671 U3160212] ;2017 * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&oldid=1730836 U3122707] --> ==Licensing== Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener. ==See also== * Structure ** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]] ** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]] * Marking and feedback ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]] ** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]] ** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric] * Tutorials ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 1: Topic selection]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2: Wiki editing]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]] {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]] 7vz7z6ixw3kyagfqxbpvac9ikd3l0wp 0 227853 2830255 2272468 2026-09-01T17:13:09Z Michael Ten 654933 added == Discussion questions, essay topics, and AI prompt ideas == 2830255 wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Artificial Intelligence]]:''' The concept is employed in work on [[Wikipedia:artificial intelligence|artificial intelligence]]. The expression was introduced by [[Wikipedia:Gerardo Beni|Gerardo Beni]] and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems.<ref>Beni, G., Wang, J. Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems, Proceed. NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Tuscany, Italy, June 26–30 (1989)</ref>. Algorithmic implementations of SI systems consist typically of a population of ("simple") [[Wikipedia:Intelligent agent|agents]] or [[Wikipedia:boids|boids]] interacting locally with one another and with their environment. The diversity of individuals is reduces in complexity to study similarities inspired from nature, especially biological systems. The agents in the SI system follow in this case very simple rules. The algorithmic implementation the reduce the complexity of individuals to study, how even without a centralized control structure for the individual could lead to the [[Wikipedia:emergence|emergence]] of "intelligent" global behavior, unknown to the individual agents. Examples in natural systems of SI include [[Wikipedia:Ant colony|ant colonies]], bird [[Wikipedia:Flocking (behavior)|flocking]], animal [[Wikipedia:herding|herding]], [[Wikipedia:Bacteria#Growth and reproduction|bacterial growth]], and fish [[Wikipedia:Shoaling and schooling|schooling]]. The definition of swarm intelligence is still not quite clear. In principle, it should be a multi-agent system that has self-organized behaviour that shows some intelligent behaviour. The application of swarm principles to [[Wikipedia:robot|robot]]s is called [[Wikipedia:swarm robotics|swarm robotics]], while 'swarm intelligence' refers to the more general set of algorithms. 'Swarm prediction' has been used in the context of forecasting problems. == Learning Task == * A neural netowrk consist of neurons (single cells) that are connected in a network via synapses. The communicate over the network with electro-chemical signal processing. Explain similarities between swarm intelligence and emergence of intelligence in out brain. * Analyze the concept of genetic algorithms what are differences and similarities to the evolution of swarm intelligence. Describe the type of evolution of swarm intelligence that can be decribed with genetic algorithms and what are more appropriate [[machine learning]] methods in the context of swarm intelligence (e.g. ANN methods: Kohonen networks, Hopefield nets, Backpropagation networks, ...)? == Discussion questions, essay topics, and AI prompt ideas == * In what way can agentic AI be utilized for swarm intelligence? * What problems could be solved by utilizing swarms of AI agents? * How could there be more abundance on Earth by utilizing swarms of AI agents to identify problems in living, identify potential solutions to problems in living, and create potential plans to help and assist humans in solving and resolving problems in living? == See also == * [[machine learning]] == References == amhxug8vznhyrnmi2q6xtfqlhsgqq4q 0 234034 2830322 2484129 2026-09-02T00:00:17Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Discussion questions */ updated section title and added. 2830322 wikitext text/x-wiki Decentralized autonomous organizations (DAO) a new form of social and economic organization enabled by blockchain technology, smart contracts, and cryptocurrencies. {{RightTOC}} ==How to start a DAO== There are multiple ways to start a decentralized autonomous organization. This is just one method of many; DAO’s are encouraged to experiment with their own ideas on how to create and organize themselves. * Decide on a reason for a DAO and the functions that you want the DAO to serve. * Decide on a method of making decisions and coming to consensus among members of the DAO. Will proposals passed by member vote make defacto changes, or simply guide a smaller team to make decisions? * Declare on social media that you are starting a DAO for a particular purpose. * Establish locations online and on social media where individuals can collaborate in the organization of the DAO. Many communities use [[Discord]] as their service of choice for community organizing. * Establish a chief definite purpose for the DAO, such as a mission statement, community values, or any other ways you can think of to communicate why your DAO exists. * Create definite plans of action to implement the goals of your DAO. Take decisive action to implement the plans. * Plans change and evolve. Use your experience, creativity and available resources (such as fellow members, other DAO’s and published research) to think of new ideas. Make new plans of action and take steps to implement those changes. Often, constant iteration is necessary in order to fulfill the chief definitive purpose of the DAO. ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas== * What functions can DAOs potentially serve? * What sort of DAOs might you like to see established? * How can DAOs benefit society? * How are DAOs different in form from other organizational structures? How are they similar? * Do many .edu websites have resources about starting decentralized autonomous organizations? * Do some universities have business incubators, and if yes, what role might business incubators at traditional universities play in promoting and facilitating the creation and success of decentralized autonomous organizations? ==Readings== ===Wikipedia=== * [[Wikipedia:Decentralized autonomous organization|Decentralized autonomous organization]] * [[w:Decentralized finance|Decentralized finance]] (DeFi) - DeFi is one possible way to finance DAO's * [[w:Decentralized application|Decentralized application]] (dApp) - dApps are way one method collaborating for and within DAO's ==See also== * [[Finance]] * [[Cryptoeconomics]] * [[Blockchain]] ==External links== * [https://hbswk.hbs.edu/Pages/browse.aspx?HBSTopic=Finance Finance research publications at Harvard] * [http://review.chicagobooth.edu/finance/2018/article/good-and-bad-blockchain The good and bad of blockchain] - article from Chicago booth Review * [https://www.reddit.com/r/cryptoeconomics/ Discuss cryptoeconomics on Reddit] * [https://www.coindesk.com/wyoming-dao-llc-law-passed State Lawmaker Explains Wyoming’s Newly Passed DAO LLC Law] [[Category:Organizational governance]] r9f5pvqkiajqbzobp8z1pjvuhbi9n8s 0 238631 2830447 2830141 2026-09-02T10:37:30Z Andy?yes 3006471 2830447 wikitext text/x-wiki '''OpenStax''' (formerly OpenStax College) is a nonprofit ed-tech initiative based at Rice University. Since 2012, OpenStax has created peer-reviewed, openly licensed textbooks, which are available as free downloadable PDFs, web versions, audiobooks<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://openstax.org/blog/guest-post-how-audio-technology-is-creating-more-inclusive-learning|title=OpenStax {{!}} How audio technology is creating more inclusive learning|website=openstax.org|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-20}}</ref> and for a low cost in print. All textbook content is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Licenses; specifically, the books are available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License v4.0, which means that instructors are free to use, adapt, and remix the content, as long as they attribute OpenStax.<ref>[[Wikipedia: OpenStax]]</ref> The following Wikiversity resources devoted to OpenStax textbooks. These resources also included materials available at [https://openstax.org/ '''openstax.org''']. Although some versions found on Wikiversity are out-of-date, some might find them more convenient to access. *[[OpenStax American Government 3e]] *[[OpenStax American Government 4e]] *[[OpenStax University Physics|OpenStax University Physics (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax College Physics|OpenStax College Physics (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax Astronomy|OpenStax Astronomy (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax Astronomy 2e|OpenStax Astronomy 2e (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2e|OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2e]] *[[OpenStax Biology 2e]] *[[OpenStax Business Ethics]] *[[OpenStax Clinical Nursing Skills]] *[[OpenStax College Success]] *[[OpenStax College Success Concise]] *[[OpenStax Concepts of Biology]] *[[OpenStax Entrepreneurship]] *[[OpenStax Fundamentals of Nursing]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Business]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Political Science]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Sociology 3e]] *[[OpenStax Lifespan Development]] *[[OpenStax Maternal Newborn Nursing]] *[[OpenStax Medical Surgical Nursing]] *[[OpenStax Microbiology]] *[[OpenStax Nutrition for Nurses]] *[[OpenStax Organizational Behavior]] *[[OpenStax Principles of Economics 3e]] *[[OpenStax Principles of Macroeconomics 3e]] *[[OpenStax Principles of Microeconomics 3e]] *[[OpenStax Psychology 2e]] *[[OpenStax US History]] *[[OpenStax world history volume 1 to 1500|OpenStax World History, Volume 1: to 1500]] *'''OpenStax Calculus: ''' No resources have been developed, but (out-of-date) pdf versions of the three volume textbook are posted on Wikiversity at: '''[[:File:CalculusVolume1-OP.pdf|V1]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume2-OP.pdf|V2]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume3-LR.pdf|V3]]''' == See Also == * [[Wikipedia: OpenStax]] * [https://openstax.org/ OpenStax.org] * [https://audileo.com/ Official OpenStax Audio Textbooks] *[[:Category:openstax textbook]] *[https://www.facebook.com/openstax/ OpenStax Facebook page] * [https://www.ted.com/talks/richard_baraniuk_the_birth_of_the_open_source_learning_revolution TED Talk dated 2006-02] Founder Richard Baraniuk discussing Connexions *[[Quizbank]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xog2X2SnjvQ YouTube: Importing OpenStax content into Pressbooks] == References == {{reflist}} {{subpages/List}} [[category:openstax file]] [[Category:Quizbank]] i6c9rdpj3b9wv988eqqkl0zpniptr4x 2830451 2830447 2026-09-02T10:42:36Z Andy?yes 3006471 2830451 wikitext text/x-wiki '''OpenStax''' (formerly OpenStax College) is a nonprofit ed-tech initiative based at Rice University. Since 2012, OpenStax has created peer-reviewed, openly licensed textbooks, which are available as free downloadable PDFs, web versions, audiobooks<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://openstax.org/blog/guest-post-how-audio-technology-is-creating-more-inclusive-learning|title=OpenStax {{!}} How audio technology is creating more inclusive learning|website=openstax.org|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-20}}</ref> and for a low cost in print. All textbook content is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Licenses; specifically, the books are available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License v4.0, which means that instructors are free to use, adapt, and remix the content, as long as they attribute OpenStax.<ref>[[Wikipedia: OpenStax]]</ref> The following Wikiversity resources devoted to OpenStax textbooks. These resources also included materials available at [https://openstax.org/ '''openstax.org''']. Although some versions found on Wikiversity are out-of-date, some might find them more convenient to access. *[[OpenStax American Government 3e]] *[[OpenStax American Government 4e]] *[[OpenStax University Physics|OpenStax University Physics (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax College Physics|OpenStax College Physics (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax Astronomy|OpenStax Astronomy (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax Astronomy 2e|OpenStax Astronomy 2e (click to visit)]] *[[OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2e|OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2e]] *[[OpenStax Biology 2e]] *[[OpenStax Business Ethics]] *[[OpenStax Clinical Nursing Skills]] *[[OpenStax College Success]] *[[OpenStax College Success Concise]] *[[OpenStax Concepts of Biology]] *[[OpenStax Entrepreneurship]] *[[OpenStax Fundamentals of Nursing]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Business]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Political Science]] *[[OpenStax Introduction to Sociology 3e]] *[[OpenStax Lifespan Development]] *[[OpenStax Maternal Newborn Nursing]] *[[OpenStax Medical Surgical Nursing]] *[[OpenStax Microbiology]] *[[OpenStax Nutrition for Nurses]] *[[OpenStax Organizational Behavior]] *[[OpenStax Pharmacology for Nurses]] *[[OpenStax Principles of Economics 3e]] *[[OpenStax Principles of Macroeconomics 3e]] *[[OpenStax Principles of Microeconomics 3e]] *[[OpenStax Psychology 2e]] *[[OpenStax US History]] *[[OpenStax world history volume 1 to 1500|OpenStax World History, Volume 1: to 1500]] *'''OpenStax Calculus: ''' No resources have been developed, but (out-of-date) pdf versions of the three volume textbook are posted on Wikiversity at: '''[[:File:CalculusVolume1-OP.pdf|V1]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume2-OP.pdf|V2]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume3-LR.pdf|V3]]''' == See Also == * [[Wikipedia: OpenStax]] * [https://openstax.org/ OpenStax.org] * [https://audileo.com/ Official OpenStax Audio Textbooks] *[[:Category:openstax textbook]] *[https://www.facebook.com/openstax/ OpenStax Facebook page] * [https://www.ted.com/talks/richard_baraniuk_the_birth_of_the_open_source_learning_revolution TED Talk dated 2006-02] Founder Richard Baraniuk discussing Connexions *[[Quizbank]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xog2X2SnjvQ YouTube: Importing OpenStax content into Pressbooks] == References == {{reflist}} {{subpages/List}} [[category:openstax file]] [[Category:Quizbank]] 737kq44bf6alu402av7nuzbnl4lysnb 0 240620 2830304 2752963 2026-09-01T22:50:44Z Jtneill 10242 Make sure to follow the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. 2830304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|How to reduce word count and improve quality}} It is possible to write a top-quality book chapter within the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Length (word count)|maximum word count]]—that is the challenge. In fact, most full chapter drafts can be significantly improved, rather than weakened, by reducing the word count. If you are having difficulties complying with the word count guidelines, consider these strategies: [[File:Gnome-applications-utilities.svg|right|150px]] #Renegotiate the '''topic''' so that it is more specific (i.e., less territory to cover) #Reduce '''introductory material'''—provide brief explanations of basic concept (with links to Wikipedia articles and/or related Wikiversity book chapters); in this way, the chapter concentrates on the main topic (i.e., directly answers the question in the sub-title) #Reduce '''breadth''' of coverage—narrow the focus (e.g., instead of covering 5 theories, what are the most relevant 2 or 3 theories?) #Reduce '''depth''' of coverage—avoid unnecessary detail; check whether content is aligned with the sub-title and focus questions #Choose the best '''citations and references'''—use the top theory and research sources about the topic; be selective; avoid over-citation (e.g., multiple citations per point) #Remove [[w:Weasel word|'''weasel words''']]—a lot of sentences can be improved by shortening (e.g., try the [https://hemingwayapp.com Hemingway app]]; [[wikt:cut to the chase|cut to the chase]]; don't [[wikt:beat around the bush|beat around the bush]] #Use an [[w:Automatic summarization|'''AI text summariser''']]—these tools can help to [[wikt:separate the wheat from the chaff|sort the wheat from the chaff]] and to clarify key messages. Make sure to follow the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. #Move some content into [[Help:Subpages|'''subpages''']] (which don't count in the overall word count, but also doesn’t count for marking purposes) <!-- see examples from [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous years]]. --> ==External links== * [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/writing-tips/clean-up-your-writing/ 11 tips to clean up your wordy writing] (Grammarly) * [https://www.inpressionedit.com/2016/10/02/16-tips-on-how-to-reduce-word-counts-and-write-concisely/ 16 tips on how to reduce word counts and write concisely] (inpressionedit.com) * [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/conciseness/eliminating_words.html Eliminating words] (Purdie University) * [https://www.slideshare.net/PatrickEMcLean/how-to-kill-a-word How to kill a word] (slideshare.net) * [https://writingcooperative.com/how-to-weed-out-weasel-words-for-stronger-writing-a129b79d75d8 How to weed out weasel words for stronger writing] (writingcooperative.com) * [https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/conciseness-handout/?utm_source=chatgpt.com Writing concisely] (University of North Carolina) [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] 2ccuxgul1fjlvtc6othbd3f63c2011z 0 264910 2830365 2815394 2026-09-02T03:24:40Z Jtneill 10242 2830365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on self-determination theory. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate healthy behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating health behaviours (e.g., exercise, health eating). Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] f6tbr3e5y18ypt5ybkn08lmaz0d500t 2830383 2830365 2026-09-02T04:39:34Z Jtneill 10242 /* Taxonomy of motivation */ + table 2830383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on self-determination theory. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. {| class="wikitable" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't really see any point in exercising because it doesn't seem to make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] immo12ichg18mjmozto6sg2vce844j7 2830385 2830383 2026-09-02T04:45:00Z Jtneill 10242 2830385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on self-determination theory. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] h00qb2udnx8fk38bongdtfzp4e1t3cl 2830388 2830385 2026-09-02T04:47:52Z Jtneill 10242 2830388 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] eotmkpa4iesxbrlcc4oboysol9b5mo9 2830395 2830388 2026-09-02T05:11:09Z Jtneill 10242 Improve table 2830395 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Instead of trying to motivate<br>with these controlling behaviours ... ! ! ... consider these alternative<br>autonomy-supportive behaviours |- | Take only your own perspective | → | Take the other person's perspective |- | Introduce extrinsic incentives | → | Invite the other to pursue a personal interest |- | Utter directives without explanations | → | Provide explanatory rationales for requests |- | Encourage pursuit of extrinsic goals | → | Encourage pursuit of intrinsic goals |- | Induce guilt, shame, and self-worth concerns | → | Support valuing and volitional internalisation |- | Counter and try to change negative feelings | → | Acknowledge and accept negative feelings |- | Use pressuring language | → | Use invitational language |- | Push for immediate compliance | → | Display patience |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] dhlbhi60l8j1qldus2ihcubt8q2bh8i 2830398 2830395 2026-09-02T05:18:54Z Jtneill 10242 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2830395|2830395]] by [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|Jtneill]] ([[User talk:Jtneill|talk]]) 2830398 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] eotmkpa4iesxbrlcc4oboysol9b5mo9 2830399 2830398 2026-09-02T05:21:15Z Jtneill 10242 /* Book chapter */ + genAI guidelines 2830399 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 04] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 04] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 04] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 6gospghk4ccqnige11908oz2dsryo2x 2830401 2830399 2026-09-02T05:22:19Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ 2830401 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 3wcbzgfpvchx949kn3dfbuma1y4qe6n 2830415 2830401 2026-09-02T06:04:00Z Jtneill 10242 /* Taxonomy of motivation */ Revise quiz 2830415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> === Identify the type of motivation === Why do you exercise? 1. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''” |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 2. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 3. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 4. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Being fit is important to me.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 5. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> '''6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 7. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 8. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 10. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 11. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 12. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] dmwhpdt1mafa5qc7qwfmmjxdjf29z6p 2830417 2830415 2026-09-02T06:06:35Z Jtneill 10242 /* Identify the type of motivation */ Update quiz instructions 2830417 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see boxes above and answers below. 1. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''” |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 2. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 3. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 4. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Being fit is important to me.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 5. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> '''6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 7. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 8. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 10. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 11. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 12. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] ond6f5wulp8rburs89gptgstbwcnag2 2830418 2830417 2026-09-02T06:07:10Z Jtneill 10242 /* Quiz: Identify the type of motivation */ 2830418 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see boxes above or answers in Table 1 below. 1. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''” |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 2. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 3. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 4. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Being fit is important to me.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 5. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> '''6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 7. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 8. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 10. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 11. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 12. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] gb5e8qh1f0k8kko2vz643d64v2zxip9 2830419 2830418 2026-09-02T06:10:30Z Jtneill 10242 Move quiz to subpage 2830419 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) This is based on [[self-determination theory]]. ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 8c1s7kxqzxpwjxt8ibwp4sm1uf6wqhv 2830426 2830419 2026-09-02T07:29:23Z Jtneill 10242 /* Overview */ 2830426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving (i.e., physiological and psychological health and well-being_.}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 8rqsd0cw5l3p2l1nq0adb5hmlun37jh 2830432 2830426 2026-09-02T08:35:59Z Jtneill 10242 2830432 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|* Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful (overlapping) distinction is between deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness). The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] asin2xamf4few7t7o7yqouobwdn0kkb 2830433 2830432 2026-09-02T08:37:51Z Jtneill 10242 2830433 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|2-factor: deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>3-factor: The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>5-factor: Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] sdqqvduigbb1wfooeffjbrqgb0cayxs 2830434 2830433 2026-09-02T08:39:14Z Jtneill 10242 /* Needs */ 2830434 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''| '''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br> '''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br> '''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''| According to self-determination theory:<br> autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 6t0a5ymnsuwpau3tbbbwmjn6vza8wau 2830435 2830434 2026-09-02T08:40:20Z Jtneill 10242 /* Needs */ 2830435 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 6ernyoa0xdqnfnln2xv3zvmak7lbt2v 2830436 2830435 2026-09-02T08:42:57Z Jtneill 10242 /* Taxonomy of motivation */ + bullet points 2830436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation Exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] ibyckmuivn9vm6ug5dis3szdks8tw93 2830437 2830436 2026-09-02T08:43:33Z Jtneill 10242 /* Taxonomy of motivation */ 2830437 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] o8k01dvrdbjp6osgqoh872k5x3d4k6z 2830438 2830437 2026-09-02T08:44:32Z Jtneill 10242 /* Quiz: Identify the type of motivation */ + alternative (advanced) exercise 2830438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. Alternative (advenced) exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? * Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. * Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. For examples, see Table 1. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] efq0e6l5grpt9ok9wbg6t12q4vaionv 2830439 2830438 2026-09-02T08:46:37Z Jtneill 10242 /* Quiz: Identify the type of motivation */ + blank table 2830439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. Alternative (advenced) exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? * Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. * Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | " ... " |- | '''External regulation''' | " ... " |- | '''Introjection''' | " ... " |- | '''Identification''' | " ... " |- | '''Integration''' | " ... " |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | " ... " |} For examples, see Table 1. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 8pqbq1rqq3b05v2awmzxp2mgz0siftt 2830440 2830439 2026-09-02T08:50:06Z Jtneill 10242 /* Quiz: Identify the type of motivation */ 2830440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. Alternative (advenced) exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? * Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. * Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. '''Table 1'''. What Might Someone With Each of These Six Types of Motivation Say about Their Reasons for Exercising? {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''External regulation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Introjection''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Identification''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Integration''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |} For examples, see Table 2. ==Answers== '''Table 1'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 65arhmrzwczijvljyr20poh08m8h8o5 2830441 2830440 2026-09-02T08:50:29Z Jtneill 10242 /* Answers */ 2830441 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. Alternative (advenced) exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? * Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. * Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. '''Table 1'''. What Might Someone With Each of These Six Types of Motivation Say about Their Reasons for Exercising? {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''External regulation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Introjection''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Identification''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Integration''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |} For examples, see Table 2. ==Answers== '''Table 2'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [Tutorial 4] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] gsks38uzsfyjpkiurttvk8zwe8jyayz 2830442 2830441 2026-09-02T08:53:28Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ Update for 2026 2830442 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 4: Psychological needs|fourth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial facilitates an interactive discussion about two aspects of [[self-determination theory]]: # basic psychological needs # taxonomy of motivation (intrinsic-extrinsic motivation) ==Needs== Brainstorm and discuss: {{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving (biological needs) and thriving (psychological needs).}} {{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival (e.g., warmth, transport) and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain, a new car).}} {{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|'''2-factor''': deficit-based (biological) needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based (psychological) needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).<br>'''3-factor''': The Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.<br>'''5-factor''': Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five needs: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation}} {{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory:<br>autonomy, competence, and relatedness}} ==Taxonomy of motivation== Discuss: {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * External (environmental) reasons for behaving * Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}} {{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? Examples?'''| * Internal reasons for behaving * Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies) * External influences are absent.}} {{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * Breaks motivation down into types * Simple and easy to understand * Helps with research designs}} {{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''| * A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic * Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation}} {{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''| * Amotivation * Extrinsic motivation ** External regulation ** Introjection ** Identification ** Integration * Intrinsic motivation }} <!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--> == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation. [[/Quiz|Go to quiz]]. Alternative (advenced) exercise: What strategies can motivate exercise behaviours? * Brainstorm ways of motivating healthy exercise behaviours. * Allocate each of these strategies along the taxonomy of motivation, including amotivation, the four types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. '''Table 1'''. What Might Someone With Each of These Six Types of Motivation Say about Their Reasons for Exercising? {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''External regulation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Introjection''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Identification''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Integration''' | " ......... ? ......... " |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | " ......... ? ......... " |} For examples, see Table 2. ==Answers== '''Table 2'''. Examples of Reasons to Engage in Healthy Exercise Based on the Taxonomy of Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! Type !! Example reason |- | '''Amotivation''' | "I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference." |- | '''External regulation''' | "My doctor told me I have to exercise." |- | '''Introjection''' | "I feel guilty when I don't exercise." |- | '''Identification''' | "Being fit is important to me." |- | '''Integration''' | "Taking care of my body is part of who I am." |- | '''Intrinsic motivation''' | "I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active." |} ==Book chapter == ===Topic development feedback=== * Review [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] marks and feedback – follow-up and discuss if you don’t understand * '''Align''' sub-title, focus questions, and headings * Identify the '''best psychological science on the topic''': Systematic reviews and/or meta-analysis * '''Embed''' links to more information: ** Other book chapters ** Wikipedia articles * '''Acknowledge use of genAI''' in '''edit summaries''' by including a '''shared link''' to the conversation (be academically honest and transparent). See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using generative AI guidelines]]. * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|Topic development - General feedback]] ===Messy middle=== We are now in the "messy middle" of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] development: * '''Motivational pattern''' (consistent with motivational science about the trajectory of motivation) ** Strong at '''start''' (excitement, newness) ** Strong at '''end''' (deadline pressure, completion goals) ** Dips in '''middle''' (novelty fades, finish feels long, distractions increase) * '''Strategies for the middle''' ** Make '''small, regular edits''' → steady progress ** Use '''scaffolding''' → build on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] feedback and work towwards [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter guidelines]] ** Seek clarification; follow up if unsure * '''Key idea''' ** Keep '''momentum''' alive in the “messy middle”—in this case, by doing small edits regularly to move from Topic Development → Book Chapter ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/56e88f2f9a5a4977972c3adcf0b116fb Tutorial 4] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/fecbd3c2b9c94ee8bf7aaf6730226a53 Tutorial 4] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9717613592cf458099da1b8e021fe13f Tutorial 4] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a95256f932d4e228992199adcb6c094 Tutorial 4] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 4] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 4] (2021) --> ==See also== * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth/|Example of SDT: Child cleaning teeth]] * [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]] * [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]] * [[/Self-determination theory/]] <!-- ;Book chapters --> <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ; Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} ==External links== * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] egdbqdwjy8e7g8j1ojb78u0bz19f23h 0 264911 2830402 2816083 2026-09-02T05:25:19Z Jtneill 10242 2830402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 5: Functionalist theory and self-tracking|fifth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial: # explores practical applications of motivational theory using<!-- which can be used to understand why people behave the way they do - and how they can improve their goal striving and satisfaction / extend on content covered in Chapters 07 and 08 of [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018)]] -->: ## '''functionalist theory of motivation''' with university student motivations as an example ## '''self-tracking''' as a form of feedback and self-monitoring # demonstrates use of '''Google Scholar''' to identify the top references on a topic ==Functionalist theory== # Models of motivation considered so far (e.g., models of needs) assume universality of motivation, and mostly don't recognise two key issues: ## People may perform the same behaviour but with different motivations ## There is often more than one motivation (reason) why someone performs a behaviour # The '''functionalist''' perspective of motivation (Clary & Snyder, 1999) proposes that: ## Behaviours serve different functions (or goals) for different people ## The match between a person's: (a) motivations and (b) outcomes determines (c) [[satisfaction]] and likelihood of continuing # A good match between motivations and outcomes leads to satisfaction and retention (or intention to continue), whereas if motivations are not well matched by corresponding outcomes this will lead to low satisfaction and heightened risk of drop-out # The take-home messages about motivation from a functional perspective are that: ## Motivations are multiple and complex (not singular and simple) ## Motivational profiles differ between people ## The match between motivations and outcomes predicts satisfaction which predicts likelihood to continue # It is also worth noting for further discussion that our motivational profiles fluctuate over time and between contexts # The following exercise demonstrates how a functionalist approach to motivation can be applied ==University student motivations== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: University student motivations''' # Consider: ##"'''Why''' are '''you''' at university?"—or, more generally, ## '''“Why do students go to uni?”''' # Develop a class [[w:Mind map|mind map]] of the main underlying motivations for attending university. Think and respond honestly—<u>''why''</u> are students <u>'''''really'''''</u> at university? ## Answers are likely to cover a wide range of human motives, but as the map develops, look for underlying themes and group similar motivations together. ## Past experience <!-- with this exercise --> and previous research finds that the motivations are likely to fall within these six categories: ##* '''Career/Qualifications''' - for the degree, so I can get a better job etc. ##* '''Self-Exploration/Learning''' - for the learning, curiousity, knowledge-seeking etc. ##* '''Social Opportunities''' - to meet people, make and explore friendships, enjoy social environment ##* '''Altruism''' - to become better able to help people, help society, help the planet etc. ##* '''Social Pressure''' - expectations of family, friends, society etc. ##* '''Rejection of Alternatives''' - better than doing nothing, working etc. <!-- (Note: Factor analytic research by Neill (2008) has not found psychometric support for the rejection of alternatives factor, but it has for the other five factors). --> # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdjfdQ7owYTDGTU4hNmBKRpyL_DZt4IilYZ4v-d12zNAKQiGA/viewform?usp=sf_link University Student Motivation] survey # Discuss results <!-- # Note and discuss: ## Where do you differ notably in your motivational profile from the university average? Who has a notable discrepancy that they would like to share? ##If a motivation factor was rated higher than its corresponding outcome, this is likely to contribute to dissatisfaction and risk of drop-out. ## If any outcome is rated higher than corresponding motivations, the experience of university is "over-delivering" in this area (i.e., you are getting more than expected) which may or may not contribute to satisfaction (depending on how valuable that outcome is to you). Include more info about Kerry Thomas' 4th year study with Lifeline and Red Cross Blood Donation study --> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-tracking== <div style="text-align:center">What are these objects?</div> <div style="overflow-x:scroll;overflow-y:hidden;"><div style="width:1560px;"><!-- -->[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Bullet-Journal-by-Matt-Ragland.jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Pedometer.JPG|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Moodring2.jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:What's the Right Weight for My Height? (4254117120).jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Blutdruckmessgeraet.jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Elite HRV - Heart Rate Variability Reading.jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Black Nike FuelBand.jpg|x70px]]<!-- -->[[File:Blood Glucose Testing.JPG|x70px]]<!-- --> </div></div> <div style="text-align:center">(mirror, bullet-journal, stop watch, mood ring, scales, blood pressure, heart rate variability, exercise activity tracker, blood glucose monitor<!-- , smart pill -->)<br>(they are self-tracking tools)<br><br>What are they for?<br>(learning about and improving ourselves)</div> # 21st century mobile applications offer an increasing array of self-monitoring tools. This presents an opportunity and a challenge: How can optimal use be made of self-tracking? # Discuss: ## What is self-tracking? ## What are some examples of self-tracking? What self-tracking do you do? What are you curious to try?<!-- # What have you discovered through self-tracking? What could you discover? --> # Watch: ## [https://www.youtube.com/embed/OrAo8oBBFIo?start=16&end=305 The quantified self] (Gary Wolf, TED@Cannes, 2010, YouTube, 4:49 mins) ## [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NP5okzCjrj0 The quantified self: Data gone wild?] (PBS NewsHour, 2013, YouTube, 5:45 mins) # Discuss: ## What are the potential benefits?<br>(e.g., self-awareness, steady stream of data-driven feedback) ## What are the potential problems?<br>(e.g., externalises motivation, could heighten sense of overwhelm and distress) ==Google Scholar== To help identify the best academic resources about a target topic, try these [http://scholar.google.com Google Scholar] search tips: <!-- # [http://scholar.google.com Google Scholar] e.g., [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=self-tracking+motivation self-tracking motivation] (search) --> # '''Citation rates''' - focus on sources with high citation rates (# of citations / years since published) # '''Authors''' - check the publications by top authors on the topic # '''Related articles''' - for top sources, check out "related articles" # '''Link to libraries''' - sync search results to UC Library holdings for quick access to restricted publications ## Login using Google Account ## Settings: Three bars (top-left) - Settings - Library links ## Search for institution name ("UC Library" is the main one, but also "University of Canberra" for Proquest) ## Select target libraries ## Save ## Search results will now show links to full-text resources held in the institutional library # [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html#library '''Storing citations'''] - save favourite publications to a folder. They can be found via My Library. # '''APA style citations''' - double-quote button. Provides a good start, but may need correcting, italics, and doesn't provide doi # [https://scholar.google.com/scholar_alerts '''Setting up alerts'''] - follow new publications about topics or authors of interest. "Create alert" at bottom of search. <!-- ## [https://canberra.libanswers.com/faq/192648 More info] --> <!-- # Filtering by year # '''Related articles''' # '''Citation searching''' (with Google Scholar or [http://ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/login?url=http://www.scopus.com/home.url Scopus]) --> <!-- # [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html#alerts Setting up alerts] --> # More info: ## [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/about.html About] ## [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html Search tips] ## [https://guides.library.ucsc.edu/c.php?g=745384&p=5361954 Advanced search] # Other possibly useful search strategies: ## Include "review" or "meta-analysis" in the search to identify major reviews on the topic ## Search in [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|key journals]] ### Topic-specific - e.g., [https://link.springer.com/journal/11031 Motivation and Emotion] ### Major psychological review journals e.g., [https://www.annualreviews.org/journal/psych Annual Review of Psychology] ## [https://www.scopus.com/ Scopus] ## [https://scite.ai scite.ai] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1991). A functional analysis of altruism and prosocial behavior: The case of volunteerism. In M. Clark (Ed.), ''Review of personality and social psychology: Vol 12. Pro-social behavior'' (pp. 119-148). Sage. Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., Miene, P. (1998). [http://www.comm.umn.edu/~akoerner/courses/5431-S13/Clary%20et%20al.%20(1998).pdf Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach]. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''74''(6), 516-530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1516 Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1999). [http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/8/5/156.full.pdf The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations]. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''8''(5), 156-159. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00037 }} ==Recording== * [Tutorial 5] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b638e341c0404b7495a06ec2f4ee4889 Tutorial 5] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/09ecf4ffc3634700bbeebc40375ed75a Tutorial 5] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/80241f122b874ad48c34707e1362faa4 Tutorial 5] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9c4925f4e1254be7bac2c1d37915e289 Tutorial 5] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/dd3e4ff54b6b427ba84d6f94285129ac Tutorial 5] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> <!-- ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Biofeedback|Biofeedback]] * [[w:Quantified Self|Quantified Self]] * [[w:Uses and gratifications theory|Uses and gratifications theory]] ;Wikiversity * [[Feedback]] * [[Self-regulation]] * [[Volunteer motivation]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=bullet+journal+habit+tracker Bullet journals] (Google image search) * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/sporty/fitness-trackers-and-cold-water-swimming/13512108 Do fitness trackers make you more active?] (ABC Radio National - Sporty podcast, 2021) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V08dWCtDyd8 The rise of the quantified self] (Mashable Brand X, 2014, YouTube, 1:48 mins) <!-- # An applied example: Workplace pedometer programs - http://www.10000steps.org.au, http://www.gettheworldmoving.com/ --> <!-- Find another video about pedometer based social media competitions --> <!-- ;Articles/Links # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FESv2CgyJag The quantified self: How wearable sensors expand human potential] (Lauren Constantini, TEDxMileHigh, 2014) (10:55) # [http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/37784/?mod=MagOur The measured life] # [http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2011/04/07/adventures-in-self-surveillance-aka-the-quantified-self-aka-extreme-navel-gazing/ Adventures in Self-Surveillance, aka The Quantified Self, aka Extreme Navel-Gazing] # [http://quantifiedself.com The quantified self] # [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/personal-science/201102/growth-quantified-self Growth of quantified self] # [http://opensource.com/health/11/8/open-health-quantified-self Open health with quantified self] # [http://www.launch.is/blog/bringing-quantified-self-to-the-masses-habit-labs-creates-ga.html Bringing quantified self to the masses: Habit labs creates games to make live healthier] # [http://www.fastcodesign.com/1665351/can-jawbone-really-made-people-healtheir-with-their-up-wristband Jawbone UP tracker] # [http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1641899/App-to-track-your-every-move App to track your every move] (PlaceMe) - [https://plus.google.com/111091089527727420853/posts/3iqjCACkBuz] # [http://news.cnet.com/8301-33620_3-57602925-278/how-my-body-rejected-activity-trackers-and-the-quantified-self/?google_editors_picks=true How my body rejected activity trackers and the 'quantified self'] (Danny Sullivan, 2013, CNET) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] ptx5wh0344olgggf8p24xle60xbxch5 0 264912 2830404 2815396 2026-09-02T05:35:27Z Jtneill 10242 2830404 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 6: Learned optimism|sixth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> == Overview == This tutorial: # Explores learned optimism (the opposite of learned helplessness) # Wraps up motivation (following tutorials focus mainly on emotion) == Learned helplessness vs. learned optimism == [[File:Shuttle Box Dog Orange.png|thumb|''Figure 1''. Shuttle box used by Seligman to experiment with learned helplessness in dogs.]] This exercise explores [[w:learned optimism|learned optimism]]. Learned optimism relates to personal control beliefs in Chapter 10 of [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018)]] and the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Mindsets, control, and the self|mindsets, control, and the self lecture]]. Whilst the textbook and lecture focus on [[w:Learned helplessness|learned helplessness]], here attention is turned to the opposite: learned optimism. Discuss: * What characterises '''learned helplessness'''? * What characterises '''learned optimism'''? A computer metaphor: * Body and brain = "hardware". Can't easily be changed. * Thinking = "software". Reprogrammable. * At least, this is the view of [[w:Cognitive psychology|cognitive psychology]] ==Martin Seligman== The learned helplessness and learned optimism concepts were developed by [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]]. Seligman started with research about learned helplessness in animals and then later applied this to learning optimism in humans and [[w:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] more generally. Three key books in this respect are: * Helplessness: On depression, development, and death (Seligman, 1975) * Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life (Seligman, 1990) * The hope circuit: A psychologist's journey from helplessness to optimism (Seligman, 2018) == Learned optimism == {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Learned Optimism Test''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] Are you more pessimistic or optimistic? Let's find out. # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSca-Z7IZlZRmsBWawzi2w2_9eyDJkloHNu0I_XAQiG80SGTmQ/viewform?usp=sf_link Learned Optimism Test] <!-- [https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:13-a0Llpw8cJ:https://web.stanford.edu/class/msande271/onlinetools/LearnedOpt.html Learned Optimism Test] [http://www.stanford.edu/class/msande271/onlinetools/LearnedOpt.html Learned Optimism Test] --> (48 items; 10 - 15 mins; modified from Seligman, 1991) # Scoring: "Right" answers are scored as optimistic; "wrong" answers are scored as pessimistic # Keep your answers up on the screen; note the total # Discussion: #* Explain the theoretical structure (see below) #* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/14AEQpwzfn7LhXNhRnb7_4ukEhrnQFe2Uk3X1i95Maps/edit?usp=sharing View and discuss the results]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <!-- # Enter your Total Good, Total Bad, and Hope scores into this [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeH86buOryA-II1OpURmzhPMNHwRejCYhREGZGdRhiQbYH_RQ/viewform?usp=sf_link Google Form]. --> Attributions are our explanations about causes of events. Our attributions about past events is used to predict causes of future events. The Learned Optimism Test measures three types of [[w:Attribution (psychology)|attribution]]s: * '''Permanence''': How a person views the ''duration'' of an event's cause, seeing it as either temporary (transient) or permanent (stable) * '''Pervasiveness''': How a person views the ''scope'' of an event's cause, seeing it as either specific (domain-bound) or universal (widespread across domains) * '''Personalisation''': How a person views the ''source'' of an event's cause, seeing it as either internal (attributable to the self) or external (attributable to others or circumstances) The Learned Optimism Test measures the three types of attributions for each of two types of events: * '''Good''': Positive occurrences in a person's life that lead to positive feelings * '''Bad''': Negative occurrences in a person's life that lead to negative feelings The three attributions for two types of events combine to create a six-domain theoretical structure (see Table 1). '''Table 1'''.<br>Attributional Dimensions (3) by Event Valence (2) Explanation of Pessimism-Optimism {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Attribution !Bad !Good |- |[[#Permanence|Permanence]] |{{H:title|dotted=no|Permanence Bad|PmB}} |{{H:title|dotted=no|Permanence Good|PmG}} |- |[[#Pervasiveness|Pervasiveness]] |{{H:title|dotted=no|Pervasiveness Bad|PvB}} |{{H:title|dotted=no|Pervasiveness Good|PvG}} |- |[[#Personalisation|Personalisation]] |{{H:title|dotted=no|Personalisation Bad|PsB}} |{{H:title|dotted=no|Personalisation Good|PsG}} |- |[[#Total B|Total]] ||{{H:title|dotted=no|Total Bad|ToB}} |{{H:title|dotted=no|Total Good|ToG}} |} '''Table 2'''.<br>Explanatory Styles Based on Attributional Dimensions of Pessimism and Optimism {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Optimistic !Pessimistic |- |'''Good event''' |Permanent<br>Pervasive<br>Internal |Temporary<br>Local<br>External |- |'''Bad event''' |Temporary<br>Local<br>External |Permanent<br>Pervasive<br>Internal |} === Permanence === '''Time''': Temporary vs. Permanent - a pessimistic view is that bad events are permanent and good events are temporary (opposite for optimism) * '''PmB''' (Permanent Bad) * '''PmG''' (Permanent Good) === Pervasiveness === '''Space''': Specific vs. Universal (i.e., across situations/domains) - a pessimistic view is that bad events are pervasive across situations/domains and good events are specific to a situation/domain (opposite for optimism) * '''PvB''' (Pervasive Bad) * '''PvG''' (Pervasive Good) === Personalisation === '''Control/causality''': Internal vs. External - a pessimistic view is that bad events are internally caused and good events are externally causes (opposite for optimism) * '''PsB''' (Personalisation Bad) * '''PsG''' (Personalisation Good) <!-- === Totals === Optimistic responses are scored in the positive direction. ;Hope * Hope (HoB) = PvB + PmB (i.e., Hope for Bad Events; arguably it should be called Hopelessness). * Seligman indicates that this is the single most important score ;Total Bad * Total B (Bad) = PmB + PvB + PsB --> <!-- * Low = Optimistic; High = Pessimistic --><!-- ;Total Good * Total G (Good) = PmG + PvG + PsG --> <!-- * Low = Pessimistic; High = Optimistic --><!-- ;Overall * Overall Optimism = Total G + Total B --> <!-- * Overall Optimism = Total G - Total B --> <!-- * Low = Pessimistic; High = Optimistic --> === ABCDE solution === Would you like to become more optimistic? If so, Seligman suggests a cognitive ABCDE solution: '''Table 3'''.<br>How to Change Pessimistic Thinking Styles {| class="wikitable" |+ |'''A''' |Adversity |When we encounter adversity, we react by thinking about it |- |'''B''' |Beliefs |Our thoughts rapidly congeal into beliefs |- |'''C''' |Consequences |These beliefs ... have consequences |- |'''D''' |Disputation |Challenge problematic beliefs by finding evidence against them, alternatives to negative reasoning, and limit the implications of the beliefs. "Much of the skill of dealing with setbacks ... consists of learning how to dispute your own first thoughts in reaction to a setback." (Seligman) |- |'''E''' |Energisation |We feel energised after we've disputed our false, negative beliefs |} ==Is optimism always good?== There are well established positive relationships between optimism and important life outcomes such as physical health (e.g., longevity) and psychological well-being. But is optimism ''always'' good? For example: * Narcissism - Believing that one is all-powerful and influential can contribute to inflated self-importance (i.e., narcissism) * Risk-taking - Believing that one can control good outcomes (when you actually can't) can be problematic (e.g., gambling) Is pessimism always bad? For example: * If anticipating negative future events is associated with positive, prepatory and preventive action (i.e., taking responsibility and acting with sufficient skill), then a pessimistic outlook could be beneficial * But if the self is unnecessarily blamed, it can lead to helplessness, low self-esteem etc. ==Where is the sweet spot?== Despite these potential problems, the advantages of optimism are overwhelming. So much so that the psychologically healthiest people tend to have "[[w:Positive illusions|positive illusions]]", that is, they have somewhat unrealistically positive views. "Pessimists" and "realists", on the other hand, are more prone to depression. ==Using generative AI== * Common mistakes include: ** Using genAI without appropriate acknowledgement ** Overly relying on genAI, with insufficient independent reading, critical thinking, and writing * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI guidelines]]: ** Link to chat in edit summary ** Rewrite to improve ** Fact-check and include primary, peer-reviewed sources you have consulted ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). ''[https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/_/aOgPtAEACAAJ?sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjNpISbkvHyAhVgzTgGHUw5COMQre8FegQICRAC Helplessness: On depression, development, and death]''. W H Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt & Co. Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). ''[https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/_/JYxIDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjf-snFkfHyAhWvzDgGHaGfBi4Qre8FegQIBxAG Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life]''. Vintage Books. Seligman, M. E. (2018). ''[https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_Hope_Circuit/gAY8DwAAQBAJ The hope circuit: A psychologist's journey from helplessness to optimism]''. Penguin Random House Australia. }} ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/2795a3b925d14bbf9f16116584df3456 Tutorial 06] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/220892bb18874be780e84dd5dff8461a Tutorial 06] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/007730f1059e4dff8a1127caf5ae967b Tutorial 06] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e7c8f3eaa41248e18c2c7e2f102ee651 Tutorial 06], 2022 * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/baf24c2a01e5466b9b5f96e15b6502cd Tutorial 06], 2021 --> ==See also== ;Additional tutorial material * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and self/Self-constructs|Self-constructs]] ; Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Learned helplessness|Learned helplessness]] (Category) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (2011) ; Wikipedia * [[w:Attribution (psychology)|Attribution]] * [[w:Cognitive behavioral therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] * [[w:Learned helplessness|Learned helplessness]] * [[w:Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] * [[w:Positive illusions|Positive illusions]] * [[w:Rational emotive behavior therapy|Rational emotive behavior therapy]] ;Lecture * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Mindsets, control, and the self|Mindsets, control, and the self]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Core emotions|Core emotions]] (Next tutorial) ; Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links == * [http://www.artofmanliness.com/2010/02/03/boosting-your-resiliency-part-2-avoiding-learned-helplessness-and-changing-your-explanatory-style/ Avoiding learned helplessness and changing your explanatory style] (Mackay & Mackay, 2010, artofmanliness.com, Building your resiliency: Part II) * [https://positivepsychology.com/learned-optimism Learned optimism: Is Martin Seligman’s glass half full?] (positivepsychology.com) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism]] 1t463jxf7kafd6hfp6imww7ai7dzorv 0 264913 2830405 2815397 2026-09-02T05:36:45Z Jtneill 10242 2830405 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychological concept of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The class exercise involves sorting many emotion words to create to linguistically model underlying clusters of emotional experience ==Criteria== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct neurological and physiological response (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Distinct feeling (i.e., subjective/phenomenological state) # Unique expression (e.g., facial expression and body language) # Innate (i.e., evident from birth; present in primates) # Adaptive (i.e., has a distinct purpose) # Short-lived (rapid onset, short duration; whereas moods which are longer-lived) # Triggered by same circumstances each time (i.e., has a specific causal trigger)? # Universal (i.e., recognised by different cultures) ==Non-emotions== If an affective experience does not qualify as an emotion, they could instead be: # Attitude (e.g., hate) # Behaviour (e.g., aggression) # Cognition (e.g., confused) # Disorder (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # Mood (e.g., grumpy) # Personality trait (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions, usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Linguistic models of emotion are developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states. The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 Our vocabularies provide windows into our psychoemotional experience]. For a deeper dive, see the work of James Pennebaker, one of the study's authors, via [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe Google Scholar]. ==Emotional intelligence== What is "[[w:Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]" (or emotional quotient (EQ))? It can also be called [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]]. Howard Gardener (1983) proposed emotional intelligence as one of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]s. Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] Many nuances of emotion are not as well described in the English language as they are in other languages. There are plenty of non-English words in the 7,000 or so other human languages that capture various subtleties in the kaleidoscope of human feeling. Some of these words have been imported to English, such as [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German) which means pleasure derived from the misfortune of others, but there are many others which do not have an English equivalent and haven't been incorporated into English. What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (from your knowledge or by exploring the links below) and its description. {{anchor|Words}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Lists of non-English emotion words: * [https://www.inc-aus.com/jessica-stillman/learning-these-20-foreign-words-for-emotions-you-never-knew-you-had-will-increase-your-eq.html 20 foreign words for emotions you never knew you had] (inc-aus.com) * [https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/75082/32-words-positive-phenomena-dont-have-english-equivalent Words for positive phenomena that don't have an English equivalent] (mentalfloss.com) * [http://thoughtcatalog.com/pierce-nahigyan/2015/12/17-words-we-dont-have-in-english-that-describe-feelings-we-have-every-day/ 17 feeling words we don’t have in English] (thoughtcatalog.com) * [https://www.berlitz.com/blog/words-emotions-dont-exist-english 25 beautiful words for emotions that don’t exist in English] (berlitz.com) * [https://www.theintrepidguide.com/untranslatable-words-ultimate-list/ 203 most beautiful untranslatable words] (theintrepidguide.com) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220617081916/https://digest.bps.org.uk/2016/01/28/there-are-at-least-216-foreign-words-for-positive-emotional-states-and-concepts-that-we-dont-have-in-english/ Foreign words for positive emotional states and concepts that we don’t have in English] (bps.org.uk) * [http://gizmodo.com/english-is-surprisingly-devoid-of-emotionally-positive-1755985162 English is surprisingly devoid of emotionally positive words] * [https://businessservicesweek.com/untranslatable-words-for-feelings-from-20-different-languages/ Untranslatable words for feelings from 20 different languages] (gizmodo.com) * [https://blog.collinsdictionary.com/language-lovers/14-untranslatable-emotions-that-english-cant-convey/ 14 untranslatable emotions that English can't convey] (collinsdictionary.com) <!-- * [https://bigthink.com/21st-century-spirituality/buy-more-books-than-you-ever-read-the-japanese-have-a-word-for-that Buy more books than you ever read? The Japanese have a word for that.] -->{{RoundBoxBottom}} What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. ==Recording== * [Tutorial 7] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] dksjpqv40pqt5l93hpiwzsofixbwk5t 0 264914 2830406 2815398 2026-09-02T05:37:48Z Jtneill 10242 2830406 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 8: Measuring emotion|eighth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial discusses: * measurement of emotion * the Positive and Negative Affect Scale * topic development feedback and book chapter marking criteria ==How can emotion be measured?== [[File:Eeg registration.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' [[w:Electroencephalography|EEG]] detects electrical activity in different areas of the brain using electrodes attached to the skull.]] Emotion research requires measurement. How can emotion be measured? [[File:El Lehendakari visita la nueva unidad de Resonancia Magnética del HUA (40116421582).jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 2'''. fMRI is an advanced method of neuroimaging which can be used to assess emotion based on blood flow.]] * Behaviour (e.g., body language, eye tracking, key strokes) * Facial expression (e.g. specific combinations of muscle activation) * Neural activity: ** [[w:Electroencephalography|Electroencephalography]] (EEG; see Figure 1) ** [[w:Functional magnetic resonance imaging|functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI; see Figure 2)) * Physiological arousal (e.g., pupil dilation, skin conductance, heart rate, physical activity) Characteristics of these methods: * Resource intensive (especially fMRI) - needs equipment, expertise, software etc. * Based on what is externally [[w:Observation|observable]] or physiologically scannable. But emotion is also fundamentally phenomenological/subjective. So, another measurement option is to ask people to [[w:Introspection|introspect]] and self-report. ==Self-report== Emotion can be self-reported qualitatively (open-ended questions with linguistic responses) or quantitatively (close-ended question with rating scales). Open-ended responses can be manually, or increasingly automatically, analysed about their emotional content to identify themes and meanings. Closed-ended self-report approaches to measurement emotion can be: * [[w:Ideogram|Ideographic]] (pictorial) such as the: [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=567989033&rlz=1C1GCEA_enAU1011AU1011&sxsrf=AM9HkKlgj5UmDqMh7zkxBlEv3Zwu5eAsvQ:1695553849848&q=self-assessment+manikin Self-Assessment Manikin] (SAM; Bradley & Lang, 1994) ** Valence (happy-sad) ** Arousal (high-low) ** Dominance (small-big) * Discrete/numerical such as: ** [[w:DASS (psychology)|Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale]] (DASS) (Wikipedia) ** [https://www.aci.health.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/212901/Kessler_10_and_scoring.pdf Kessler 10] (K-10; nsw.gov.au) ** [[w:Profile of mood states|Profile of Mood States]] (POMS) (Wikipedia) ** [[w:Positive and Negative Affect Schedule|Positive and Negative Affect Schedule]] (PANAS) (Wikipedia) The DASS and K10 are commonly used as screening tools such as by a general practitioner who is concerned about a patient's psychological distress. So, these tools measure the degree of aversive emotionality. The scores can be compared with norms to help gauge the level of distress. These tools are also sometimes used in research. The POMS and PANAS are commonly used in psychological research about emotion. The PANAS is more popular because its: * simple * flexible * freely available See also: [[w:Affect measures|Affect measures]] (Wikipedia) ==PANAS== The [[w:Positive and Negative Affect Schedule|Positive and Negative Affect Schedule]] (PANAS; Watson & Clark, 1999) is the most widely used self-report measure in emotion research. ===Your profile=== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: PANAS''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Complete this [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdRvz2jh2iTvJmuYXuoiR_1SfOzJ7QtyTnITIgCg36Uh7rtwQ/viewform?usp=sf_link short version of the PANAS] (20-items; Google Form)<!-- # [https://www.psytoolkit.org/c/3.1.0/survey?s=AqxEf Online version] (PsyToolkit) # [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B2N4zSp4hmN9NV9teWVVVS1uVjA Hard-copy handout] --> # Include a code word if you would like to know your individual results # Discuss PANAS strengths, temporal framing, psychometrics, factor structure, and distributions {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Strengths=== Strengths of the PANAS include: * Simplicity – based on 1-word emotion descriptors * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Factor structure|Factor structure]] – Short (20-item) and long (60-item) versions * Flexibility ** [[#Temporaral framing|Temporal framing]] – from present state to general ** Domain – General or specific * Availability – Free to use === Temporal framing === * '''Moment''' (you feel this way right now, that is, at the present moment) * '''Today''' (you have felt this way today) * '''Past few days''' (you have felt this way during the past few days) * '''Week''' (you have felt this way during the past week) * '''Past few weeks''' (you have felt this way during the past few weeks) * '''Year''' (you have felt this way during the past year) * '''General''' (you generally feel this way that is, how you feel on average) === Psychometrics === * Correlations between PA and NA range between -.12 (Today) and -.23 (Year) (Watson et al., 1988). The negative correlation indicates that when one dimension is higher the other one tends to be lower, but this relationship is very weak (1% to 5% shared variance). So, it is best to consider PA and NA as independent dimensions of affective experience. * Test-retest reliability – how stable is this measure of emotion over time? Based on Watson et al. (1988): ** PA (ranges between .54 (Moment) and .68 (General) ** NA (ranges between .45 (Moment) and .71 (General) === Factor structure === There are short (20-item) and long (60-item) versions of the PANAS. ;Short (20 items; 2 factors; see Table 2) * Positive affect (10 items) * Negative affect (10 items) '''Table 2''' ''PANAS-20 Positive and Negative Affect Items'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |+ !Positive affect !Negative affect |- |Active |Afraid |- |Alert |Ashamed |- |Attentive |Distressed |- |Determined |Guilty |- |Enthusiastic |Hostile |- |Excited |Irritable |- |Inspired |Jittery |- |Interested |Nervous |- |Proud |Scared |- |Strong |Upset |} ;Long (60 items; 11 factors) * '''Basic negative emotions''' ** '''Fear''' (5 items): afraid, frightened, jittery, nervous, scared, shaky ** '''Hostility''' (6 items): angry, disgusted, hostile, irritable, loathing, scornful ** '''Guilt''' (6 items): angry at self, ashamed, blameworthy, disgusted with self, guilty ** '''Sadness''' (5 items): alone, angry, blue, downhearted, sad * '''Basic positivity emotions''' ** '''Joviality''' (8 items): cheerful, delighted, energetic, enthusiastic, excited, happy, joyful, lively ** '''Self-Assurance''' (6 items): bold, confident, daring, fearless, proud, strong ** '''Attentiveness''' (5 items): alert, attentive, concentrating, determined * '''Other affective states''' ** '''Shyness''' (4 items): bashful, sheepish, shy, timid ** '''Fatigue''' (4 items): drowsy, sleepy, sluggish, tired ** '''Serenity''' (3 items): at ease, calm, relaxed ** '''Surprise''' (3 items): amazed, astonished, surprised ===Distributions=== * Examine class distributions for positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) * Compare with USA university norms (see Table 1): ** PA = 3 to 3.5 ** NA = 1.5 to 2 '''Table 1''' ''PANAS-20 Positive and Negative Affect Norms'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |+ !Source !N !PA !NA |- |Watson et al. (1988) |660 |2.97 |1.48 |- |Watson & Clark (1994) |3622 |3.57 |1.95 <!-- |- |Motivation & emotion (2000) |34.2 |24.6 --> |} ==Topic development feedback== * Check ** "discuss" page for written feedback ** UCLearn for marks ** follow-up if unsure * Priorities: ** Address the topic: title → sub-title → focus questions → headings ** Avoid too much background information; focus directly on the topic; cut to the chase ** Balance coverage of theory and research (ideally integrated); often there is too much theory and too little research; use the best research, including systematic/meta-analytic reviews ==Book chapter marking criteria== Familiarse yourself with the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter guidelines]] which include the marking criteria: * '''Overview''' (5%) ** Scenario ** Describe problem (1-2 paragraphs) ** Focus questions * '''Theory''' (20%) ** Apply top theories to the problem * '''Research''' (25%) ** Use best research to weigh evidence * '''Integration''' (10%) ** Synthesise theory and research * '''Conclusion''' (5%) ** What are the take-home messages? (i.e., answers to sub-title and/or focus questions) * '''Style''' (20%) ** Professional quality written expression (sentence structure, paragraph structure, spelling, grammar, APA style) (e.g., use Studiosity, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI]], and peer review) * '''Learning features''' (5%) - options: ** Wiki links (to the most relevant Wikipedia page or book chapter) when key words are mentioned for the first time ** Figures and tables ** Scenarios/case studies/examples ** Quizzes ** Feature boxes etc. * '''Social contribution''' (10%) ** Edits ** Comments ** Discussion posts ** Direct links to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]) ** Marking based on *** Quantity *** Quality *** Timeliness ==Recording== * [Tutorial 8] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/469acca6d2e747eaab879d60c3ddecd9 Tutorial 8] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e20b88bfb3b94251a28834ecd7ee83c8 Tutorial 8] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/36cc3cf8a7be4d139b2b406d342affc7 Tutorial 8] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7f5f45035ebc4de4800cc80731f70f1e Tutorial 8], 2022 * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e4361150e57b4b999a6d002f871be374 Tutorial 8], 2021 --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> <!-- ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Electroencephalography|Electroencephalography]] * [[w:Functional magnetic resonance imaging|Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] * [[w:Positive and Negative Affect Schedule|Positive and Negative Affect Schedule]] ;Lecture * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Aspects of emotion|Aspects of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Core emotions|Core emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= <!-- Thompson, E. R. (2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable short-form of the positive and negative affect sche''dule (PANAS). ''Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology'', ''38''(2), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301 --> Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. ''Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry'', ''25''(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9 Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1994). ''[https://doi.org/10.17077/48vt-m4t2 The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule-expanded form]''. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). [https://scienceofbehaviorchange.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/PANAS.Watson.1988.pdf Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales]. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''54''(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion]] jtpp727gmt5a7y82pru9xyeg1tf85ij 0 264915 2830407 2815399 2026-09-02T05:39:18Z Jtneill 10242 2830407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 9: 20 emotions|ninth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial discusses the causes, functions, types, and consequences of 20 individual emotions. ==Individual emotions== [[Emotion knowledge]] can be developed by expanding one's vocabulary for different types of affective states. Having a wide vocabulary helps to distinguish a wide range emotions and to understand each of their causes and functions. This tutorial distinguishes 20 individual emotions and their functions. When dealing with many emotions, it helps to organise them into categories. ===Categories=== The 20 individual emotions can be organised into three categories (Reeve, 2018; see Table 1): * '''Basic''' (7) - Core emotions: present in early development; recognised cross-culturally <!-- ### Fear ### Anger ### Disgust ### Contempt ### Sadness ### Joy ### Interest --> * '''Self-conscious''' (5): occurs when we become self-aware about how others perceive us <!-- ### Shame ### Guilt ### Embarrassment ### Pride ### Triumph --> * '''Cognitively complex''' (8): arise from thoughts/perceptions about life events often involving others <!-- ### Envy ### Gratitude ### Disappointment ### Regret ### Hope ### Schadenfreude ### Empathy ### Compassion --> '''Table 1''' ''20 Individual Emotions Organised Into Three Categories'' <div align="center"> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: auto;" ! width=30%; |Basic (7) ! width=30%; |Self-conscious (5) ! width=30%; |Cognitively complex (8) |- | [[w:Fear|Fear]] | [[w:Shame|Shame]] | [[w:Envy|Envy]] |- | [[w:Anger|Anger]] | [[w:Guilt (emotion)|Guilt]] | [[w:Gratitude|Gratitude]] |- | [[w:Disgust|Disgust]] | [[w:Embarrassment|Embarrassment]] | [[w:Disappointment|Disappointment]] |- | [[w:Contempt|Contempt]] | [[w:Pride|Pride]] | [[w:Regret|Regret]] |- | [[w:Sadness|Sadness]] | [[w:Triumph (emotion)|Triumph]] | [[w:Hope|Hope]] |- | [[w:Joy|Joy]] | | [[w:Schadenfreude|Schadenfreude]] |- | [[w:Interest (emotion)|Interest]] | | [[w:Empathy|Empathy]] |- | | | [[w:Compassion|Compassion]] |} </div> ''Note''. Links go to Wikipedia articles; For a table of these emotions with links to specific Wikiversity book chapters, see the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions#Motivations generated by specific emotions|individual emotions lecture]]; Based on Reeve (2018) What other systems of categorisation (or dimensions) could be useful? e.g., * '''Active vs. passive emotions''' - trigger motivation for action vs. involve inception or reflection * '''Approach vs. avoidance''' emotions - motivation towards positive engagement vs. motivate withdrawal of defensive behaviours * '''Positive vs. negative''' emotions - pleasant vs. unpleasant * '''Primary vs. secondary''' emotions - innate, universal, appear early in life vs. develop later, require self-awareness * '''Short-term vs. long-term''' emotions - transitory, immediate reactions vs. sustained over time * '''Social vs. non-social''' emotions - arise in interpersonal contexts vs. not dependent on social relations ===I feel ...=== What do each of these 20 emotions actually ''feel'' like and why do we feel them? The main reason for each of the emotions is presented in Table 2. <!-- To gain experiential insight, practice using "I feel ... " statements for a wide range of different emotions (see Table 2). --> '''Table 2''' ''"I Feel" Descriptions for 20 Emotions'' <div align="center"> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: auto;" ! Emotion ! Description |- | Anger | I feel injustice |- | Compassion | I feel caring towards you |- | Contempt | I feel superior to you |- | Disappointment | I feel down about a poor outcome |- | Disgust | I feel repulsed |- | Embarrassment | I feel awkward in front of you |- | Empathy | I feel with you |- | Envy | I feel jealous - I want what you have |- | Fear | I feel in danger |- | Gratitude | I feel thankful |- | Guilt | I feel bad about wronging you |- | Hope | I feel optimistic about my future |- | Interest | I feel curious |- | Joy | I feel happiness within |- | Pride | I feel good about myself and achievements |- | Regret | I feel sorrow for what I did |- | Sadness | I feel bad about a loss |- | Schadenfreude | I feel pleasure at your misfortune |- | Shame | I feel bad about myself because I am publicly wrong |- | Triumph | I feel victorious |} </div> ==Emotion matching exercise== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion matching''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Collaborate in pairs to discuss and complete the <!-- Handout: [[:File:20 Individual Emotions Matching Exercise.pdf|20 Individual Emotions Matching Exercise]] --> [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1OvG1jp1OBEGBzcDmL5W_yczXNGsqN43D_Zpdn9jHqsU 20 Emotion Matching Exercise] # Each pair completes two sheets: ## Find the emotion and category that matches the definition ## Find the definition and category that matches the emotion {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Discussion== <ol> <li> What are your '''favourite''' or '''most interesting''' emotion(s)? Why?</li> <!-- <li> What emotions are '''missing'''?</li> --> <li> What is the difference between '''shame''', '''guilt''', and '''embarrassment'''?</li> <ol> <li> Shame and guilt both involve feeling bad about the standard of the self's behaviour</li> <li> However, shame is public; guilt is private (''shame in the courtroom''; ''guilt in the cell'')</li> <li> Shame focuses on the inadequacy of ''self''; guilt focuses on the poor ''behaviour''</li> <li> Embarrassment arises from innocent social blunder; it acknowledge this awareness and asks for forgiveness</li> </ol> <li> What is the difference between '''pride''' and '''triumph'''?</li> <ol> <li> Both involve feeling good</li> <li> Pride is more personal, based on achievement</li> <li> Triumph is more social, based on competitive victory over others</li> </ol> <li> What are the two aspects of '''pride'''?</li> <ol> <li> Authentic: Based on genuine achievement</li> <li> Hubristic/Narcissistic: Self-puffery; based on desire to be better/more dominant than others; undermines relationships</li> </ol> <li> What emotions are associated with these '''interpersonal scenarios'''?</li> </ol> {| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! !'''I feel good because ...''' !'''I feel bad because ...''' |- style="vertical-align:top;" |'''... other person feels good''' |[[w:compersion|compersion]], [[w:confelicity|confelicity]], empathy, [[wikt:freudenfreude|freudenfreude]], mudita, vicarious joy |envy, jealousy, gluckschmerz |- style="vertical-align:top;" |'''... other person feels bad''' |arrogance, contempt, hate, narcissism, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] |compassion, empathy, sympathy |} <ol start="6"> <li> What are the two types of '''envy'''?</li> <ol> <li> Benign: Focuses on self-improvement (''building up'')</li> <li> Malicious: Focuses on undermining another (''tearing down'')</li> </ol> <li> What is the difference between '''empathy''', '''compassion''', and '''sympathy'''?</li> <ol> <li> Empathy: Mirrors the feelings of another </li> <li> Compassion: Motivates action to help another </li> <li> Sympathy: Pitying of others; involves power </li> </ol> <li> What is the difference between '''disappointment''' and '''regret'''?</li> <ol> <li> Both involve experiencing a worse outcome than expected; the difference is the amount of perceived control</li> <li> Disappointment: Perceives that one's behaviour could not have lead to a different outcome</li> <li> Regret: Perceives that, had one's behaviour been different, a better outcome could have been achieved</li> </ol> <li> What are the two aspects of '''gratitude'''?</li> <ol> <li> Indebtedness <math>\rightarrow</math> Exchange-based relationship: If the receiver focuses on what was received (e.g., $50), then the receiver may feel indebted to repay, leading to an exchange-based relationship</li> <li> Care <math>\rightarrow</math> Communal relationship: If the receiver focuses on the giver (e.g., a friend), then the receiver may feel cared for and loved, leading to a communal relationship</li> </ol> <li> What is the opposite of '''hope'''?</li> <ol> <li> Fear</li> <li> Fear and hope are about expectations of the future</li> <li> Fear arises from a negative view of the future; hope arises from a positive view of the future <li> Also consider hopelessness / helplessness</li> </ol> </ol> ==Readings== * Chapter 14: Individual emotions ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) ==Recording== * [Tutorial 9] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ad82252fd3b942dab76549b587afdc21 Tutorial 9] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/805b463d37464601986875924da3588a Tutorial 9] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7ba704c041be4506b9b9176dd7063e9c Tutorial 9] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/30253ce91beb4a02907ddca89ab11a8d Tutorial 9 recording Pt 1] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/60135634ce83484482bf7a2ef8199bd0 Tutorial 9 recording Pt 2] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3d5dd6db621d4c309db303408bdcaa19 Tutorial 9 recording], 2021 * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1efcf556a5384d3586d2abc55a7b2109 Tutorial 9 recording], 2020 --> ==See also== <!-- ;Book chapters ;Wikipedia --> ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Time perspective|Time perspective]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= {{:Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018}} }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Evwgu369Jw Brené Brown on empathy] (YouTube; 2:53 mins) * [https://twentyonetoys.com/blogs/teaching-empathy/brene-brown-empathy-vs-sympathy Empathy vs sympathy (Dr Brené Brown)] (twentyonetoys.com) * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/talkback-how-to-deal-with-guilt/102450958 How to deal with guilt] (Life Matters, ABC Radio National, 9 June, 2023) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Emotion/Embarrassment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Emotion/Guilt]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Emotion/Shame]] 8ula336hswi8nlghqh6uf6sloqh4c7c 0 264916 2830408 2815400 2026-09-02T05:40:07Z Jtneill 10242 2830408 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://www.youtube.com/embed/bo4HiVetBd0?start=52&end=388 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009) ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * How could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 5ktyy24yieckqx9j1y2gfcqym4ifyoe 0 264917 2830409 2815401 2026-09-02T05:41:27Z Jtneill 10242 2830409 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 11: Positive psychology|eleventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial: * distinguishes between [[w:Humanistic psychology|humanistic psychology]] and [[w:Positive psychology|positively psychology]] * considers underlying assumptions of humanistic psychology * discusses domains and characteristics of [[w:Self-actualisation|self-actualisation]] * explores types of [[w:Happiness|happiness]] and distinguishes between natural happiness and synthetic happiness Take-home messages: * '''Growth psychology''' assumes that people are naturally motivated towards personal growth. Two historical phases: humanistic psychology (1960s) and positive psychology (1990s-). * '''Humanistic psychology''' emphasises inner, natural motivation towards fulfilling one's potential * '''Self-actualisation''' involves connecting to higher values, being autonomous, engaging deeply, and rich interpersonal relationships * '''Positive psychology''' is the science of happiness, life satisfaction, and optimisation of psychological well-being * '''Happiness''' pursuit can be counter-intuitive. Humans aren't good at predicting what makes them happy (e.g., due to "impact bias" (overestimatation of hedonic impact). However, our "psychological immune system" "synthesises happiness" (when we don't get what we want). ==Growth psychology== <!-- {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} {{quote|Treatment is not just fixing what is broken; it is nurturing what is best.<br>Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000)}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} --> Growth psychology encompasses two historical phases: * '''Humanistic psychology''' (1950s–1960s): Higher-order motivation towards reaching one's potential; focus on alignment with true self, actualising tendency, organismic valuing process, and self-actualisation * '''Positive psychology''' (1990s–present): Scientific study of how to develop psychological strengths and positive emotions which contribute to human flourishing and happiness ==Humanistic psychology== This section explores the assumptions of humanistic psychology and extent to which you experience the characteristics of self-actualisation. ===Assumptions=== How aligned are you with the assumptions of humanistic psychology? Consider these questions: [[File:Question - Evil.png|600px|center]] [[File:Question - Learning.png|600px|center]] [[File:Question - Therapy.png|600px|center]] <!-- (do a class line-up (as per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|the first tutorial]] --for each and discuss) # Where does '''evil''' come from? What causes anti-social behaviour? #* inherent in human nature? (people are good and bad) #* a product of a sick culture? (people are inherently good) # If a child expresses a somewhat socially undesirable temperament, would you recommend raising the child: #* to conform to the more socially-desirable temperament? #* in his or her natural temperament? # How does '''learning''' best occur? Through: #* well-designed curriculum with expert teaching? #* having one’s interests recognised and nurtured?<!-- identified, facilitated, and supported? # Does '''psychological therapy''' work best by: #* fixing what is broken? (dealing with the problem) #* nurturing what is best? (developing strengths) --> Which answers correspond to assumptions of humanistic psychology? (the 2nd answer in each case) <!-- # What other assumptions are made by humanistic psychology, growth motivation, and positive psychology? --> ===Self-actualisation=== ====What is self-actualisation?==== * Self-actualisation = fulfillment of potential * 16 characteristics of self-actualised people (Maslow, 1971) can be grouped into 4 domains: ** '''Values''': Connection to higher values/purpose (e.g., truth, love, and happiness) ** '''Autonomy''': Internal control ** '''Engagement''': Deep involvement, productivity, and happiness ** '''Relationships''': High quality interpersonal relationships * The last three domains map closely to self-determination theory's basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). The first category (values) relates to meaning/purpose. ====Profile==== * To what extent is your life aligned with the characteristics of self-actualised people identified by Abraham Maslow? * Complete this [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfljofpop7-mVABK4CS9foyUQxoA1KJZXXNsn2z_LJi9yKVTA/viewform?usp=sf_link Self-actualisation profile] (Google Form).<!-- [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Growth psychology/Self-evaluation of self-actualisation|Alternative version]] (Wikiversity). --> * Before submitting, note down: ** What are you doing '''''particularly well''''' that is helping you towards self-actualisation? ** What '''''could you improve''''' to better promote your growth towards self-actualisation? ** What self-actualisation characteristic(s) would you like to '''''share or learn more about'''''? e.g., *** 1. Acceptance of self, others, and nature and 6. conflict-resolution *** 2. Identification with humanity → biodiversity? *** 3. Emphasis on higher values - Maslow's triangle/pyramid may be a different shape for everyone? *** 7. Autonomy - appears throughout motivational and emotional psychology *** 8. Solitude enjoyment → includes being able to thrive without technology? *** 9. Spontaneity, 11. Creativity, and 12. Freshness - being open to experience and willing to jump in and explore *** 10. Problem-absorption - meaningful, interesting problems with skills, mindset, and habit to engage *** 13. Peak experiences - lowest rated characteristic; lived experiences of self-actualisation *** 14. High quality interpersonal relationships - appears throughout motivational and emotional psychology *** 16. Humour - mature sense of humour underappreciated and underesearched, yet widely recognised in everyday life as a powerful, prevalent aspect of human psycholosocial experience * Review class responses<!-- After submitting, click "See previous responses" to see graphs of class responses. --> <!-- ##Who does or could serve as an inspiration for you, towards self-actualisation? (Bearing in mind that Maslow claimed that only 1% of people self-actualise). # Review your self-ratings in terms of what you see as your strengths and weaknesses in moving towards being a self-actualising person. # What are the strongest aspects of your self-actualising? What is it that allows this to be so strong for you? # What are the weakest aspects which may be holding you back from self-actualising? What could you do to change/improve in this area? --> ==Positive psychology== [[Positive psychology]] emerged as a distinct field in the 1990s. It focused on scientific study of the development of human psychological strengths that contribute to optimal [[w:Well-being|well-being]], [[happiness]], and [[w:Life satisfaction|life satisfaction]]. ===Happiness types=== [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]] suggests three components of [[w:Happiness|happiness]]: * '''Pleasant life''': Dealing with past, happiness in present (hedonic pleasure and the skills to amplify pleasure), optimism about future. Limitations: ** 50% heritable ** short-lived, subject to the [[w:Hedonic treadmill|hedonic treadmill]] (i.e., pleasure wears off quickly). * '''Good life''': Engagement (flow, absorption) or Eudaimonia; * '''Meaningful life''': Connection to a higher purpose [[w:Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Dan Gilbert]] suggests two types of happiness: * '''Natural happiness''': What we feel when we get what we want * '''Synthetic happiness''': What we feel when we learn to like what we get (instead of what we wanted) ===Science of happiness=== How well can humans predict their emotional reactions to events? This is known as [[w:Affective forecasting|affective forecasting]]. The science about what makes people happy shows that people are subject to many biases. For example, we tend to overestimate the hedonic impact of good and bad events (known as impact bias) (i.e., we think things will be much worse or better than they actually are). This undermines our decision-making about how to be happy because it distorts our capacity to decisions that optimise long-term happiness. On the other hand, we have something like a "psychological immune system" which "synthesises happiness" even when we don't get what we want. Thus, freedom of choice is a friend of natural happiness, but the enemy of synthetic happiness. These ideas are discussed in: [https://www.youtube.com/embed/4q1dgn_C0AU?start=15&end=1275 The surprising science of happiness] (Dan Gilbert, 2004, 21:00 mins, YouTube, TED Talk) Questions to consider: * What is natural happiness? * What is impact bias? * What is synthetic happiness? * What is the role of freedom of choice in happiness? Gilbert's talk concludes with this quote about [[w:Affective forecasting|affective forecasting]] / impact bias: <blockquote>{{cquote|The great source of both the misery and disorders of human life, seems to arise from over-rating the difference between one permanent situation and another ... Some of those situations may, no doubt, deserve to be preferred to others: but none of them can deserve to be pursued with that passionate ardour which drives us to violate the rules either of prudence or of justice; or to corrupt the future tranquillity of our minds, either by shame from the remembrance of our own folly, or by remorse from the horror of our own injustice.|author=[[w:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]], ''[[w:The Theory of Moral Sentiments|The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'', 1759}}</blockquote> ==Recording== * [Tutorial 11] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1438522430e74eaab86a345e951bc3e1 Tutorial 11] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/396e2297638b493c8d923774d7b4f571 Tutorial 11] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/92149522ca49425489b7ba8c198f6f89 Tutorial 11] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/37aa63c197dd4bda85eba115f61719c8 Tutorial 11] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5a660bcd563a4e198822e8fba193a560 Tutorial 11] (2021) --> ==See also== ;Additional tutorial material * [[/Instructor notes/]] * [[../Growth psychology/Problems for discussion|Problems for discussion]] * [[../Growth psychology/Fully functioning person|Fully functioning person]] * [[../Growth psychology/Happiness - Practical exercises|Happiness - Practical exercises]] * [[../Growth psychology/Meaning and coherence|Meaning and coherence]] * [[../Growth psychology/Optimal human functioning|Optimal human functioning]] ;Book chapters * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Impact bias|Impact bias]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness|Happiness]] (Category) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Category) ;Wikipedia People * [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] * [[w:Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Daniel Gilbert]] Topics * [[w:Affective forecasting|Affective forecasting]] * [[w:Happiness|Happiness]] * [[w:Impact bias|Impact bias]] * [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] ;Lectures and tutorials * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology|Growth motivation and positive psychology]] (Lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Time perspective|Time perspective]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Review|Review]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ==References== {{reflist}}{{Hanging indent|1= <!-- Antonovsky A. (1979). ''Health, stress and coping''. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Antonovsky A. (1987). ''Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well''. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Antonovsky A. (1993). The structure and properties of the sense of coherence scale. ''Social Science & Medicine'', ''36'', 725-733. --> Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978). [https://www.talenteck.com/academic/Brickman-Coates-Janoff-1978.pdf Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?]. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''36''(8), 917–927. Gilbert, D. (2009). ''[[w:Stumbling on Happiness|Stumbling on happiness]]''. Vintage.[https://happiness.care/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Stumbling-on-Happiness.pdf] Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2005). Affective forecasting: Knowing what to want. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''14''(3), 131–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00355.x }} ==External links== * [http://www.authentichappiness.com Authentic happiness] (authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu) <!-- * [http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/ryff-scales/ Psychological well-being scale] (Ryff) --> * [https://www.search-institute.org/our-research/development-assets/developmental-assets-framework The developmental assets framework] (search-institute.org) * [https://blog.ted.com/ten-years-later-dan-gilbert-on-life-after-the-surprising-science-of-happiness/ Ten years later: Dan Gilbert] (blog.ted.com) * [http://www.aracy.org.au/projects/the-common-approach The common approach] (aracy.org.au) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology]] rhcznkr9yeetqyzugktv9a7m9meovfc 0 264918 2830411 2815402 2026-09-02T05:42:05Z Jtneill 10242 2830411 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 12: Review|twelth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial provides active review of key learnings from the unit. ==Nuggets of truth== [[File:Kaskelix.png|200px|right|thumb|Figure 1. [[w:Baleen whale|Baleen whale]]s include the largest animals on earth. Yet they eat the tiniest food – plankton. How is this possible? And how does this relate to learning?]] Baleen whales (such as the Blue Whale which is the largest animal on earth) eats the tiniest food – plankton (see Figure 1). How does it grow so big from such tiny food? A baleen whale swallows large volumes of sea water and uses its baleen to filter out plankton for consumption. Learners are similar to baleen whales. After being exposed to a large volume of content, what really matters is what has been filtered out and extracted by learners. What are the key ideas? Thus, this exercise seeks to crystallise and share the: * pearls of wisdom * nuggets of truth * flashes of insight * a-ha moments * take-home messages etc. that have been sparked by your engagement with the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} [[File:Treasurchest.svg|right|90px]] [[File:Pearl 1.svg|right|60px]] <!-- # What pearls of wisdom or nuggets of truth have occurred to you through this unit? # Write each pearl of wisdom on a separate post-it note (generate as many as possible) - place these nuggets upside down in a collective pile. Sources may include: --> # What are the '''greatest insights''' or '''best ideas''' about motivation and emotion you've acquired through this unit? # What was the '''take-home message''' of the chapter and presentation you worked on? <!-- # Take turns to pick up a random nugget, read it out to the class, explain what you think the author means, then then select a location for the nugget on the wall (organise around themes) --> # What have you learnt from the unit that you've '''put into practice''' in your own life? # What aspect(s) of motivation and emotion are you '''inspired to learning more about''' in future? <!-- # Based on these nuggets of truth, what meta-themes emerge? --> Share your ideas via [[Motivation and emotion/Nuggets of truth|Wikiversity]]<!-- or [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1oX6O1sYdctL2FPpMRQbJ1pDTN8bgvTgPsHoMTCOynvQ/edit?usp=sharing Google Docs] --> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <!-- Note that in Ch 17 (Conclusion), [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018)]] suggests a pearl of wisdom per chapter in order to capture the spirit and messages of the book. ==Transferable knowledge and skills== This exercise seeks to identify and articulate transferable: * knowledge * skills * experience * artifacts etc. from your engagement with the [[motivation and emotion]] unit towards future learning and employability. If it helps, look over the lectures and tutorials: [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|Schedule]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gear icon svg.svg|right|90px]] What skills, knowledge, experience have you developed through [[motivation and emotion]] that could be added to your resume? Let's build a collaborative resume resource via [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1QlKC3k0bdkvWdxAYv0a0CTHztQ-OdS8IGKLYDZ6dysQ/edit Google Docs]: * [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1R6KqWqcAT2ibuAtw_0u-Opw5Vo1oRv70Ymr4dyqzHf8/edit?usp=sharing 2022] * [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1IEd3iW3DHARN7LgRmEcV0yqSlbnjuU8zRH2dQQ9idPc/edit?usp=sharing 2021] * [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1g6coLfj6RKqS493z9XpFeyPsJ838AvRTYOaJ1P25UQk/edit?usp=sharing 2020] {{RoundBoxBottom}} --><!-- ==Multimedia presentation== # Have you read the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation guidelines]]? # Have you watched the [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/collab/ui/session/playback/load/dc7be9f21cad48019e2e63557e63f1a8 how to record a multimedia presentation and publish it online]? # What ideas do you have? ## Format? ## Platform? ## Content? # FAQ ## Image attributions ## References # What questions do you have? --> ==Exam== ===Format=== * 48 multiple choice questions (1 mark each) ** ~3 questions from lecture/reading ** ~1 questions from each tutorial * 3 (out of 12 possible) short answer questions (3 marks each) * Use concise bullet-points * Maximum 50 words ===Preparation tips=== * Read the exam guidelines (see UCLearn) * Review the 12 lectures and 12 tutorials — listen, take notes, and summarise key ideas * Study each reading (Reeve, 2018/2024) — 3 electronic copies of each edition in the library * Practice with the 6 online quizzes (drawn from a test bank) * Draft answers to the 12 open-ended questions * Clarify if unsure — ask questions ===Example short-answer question=== What is the most valuable theoretical insight you developed about motivation and/or emotion through this unit, and how does it apply in a specific, real-world context?�Maximum 50 words. Use up to 3 bullet-points. (3 marks) * Accurately labels and describes a relevant theoretical construct/principle (1 mark) * Demonstrates critical/insightful/nuanced understanding of the principle (1 mark) * Shows realistic, practical application (1 mark) ==Recording== * [Tutorial 12] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ca615c73d74c4636bb9fc8aa085a4954 Tutorial 01 (2025)]<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/97113a3620ad48f8b33dbd9684c97a8f Tutorial 12] (2023) (there was no recording in 2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/bb861534bc884227b22e1bed124de575 Tutorial 12] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/600d647d3f1e40ebb00e5c9d0d604aa7 Tutorial 12] (2021) --> ==See also== ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Growth psychology/Case study scenarios|Case study scenarios]] <!-- ;Book chapters ;Wikipedia ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] --> ;Lecture * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Interventions and review|Interventions and review]] (Lecture) ; Tutorial * [[../Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Previous tutorial) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review]] rlcn4fe7dsykqvogrklj9t46492uzgh 0 266903 2830346 2646494 2026-09-02T01:53:01Z U3270398 3108645 /* See also */ expanded See also with 2 Wikipedia links and 2 related wikiversity book chapters 2830346 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Coping and emotion:<br>What is the relationship between coping and emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/JOP5-4bl6s0}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Most people experience a range of emotions everyday. Sometimes these emotions can seem overwhelming and out of control. Such situations can trigger a strong desire for us to do something about it in order to cope (Gembek, & Skinner, 2016, Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). This chapter discusses the relationship between coping and emotion and why this relationship is important in determining our current and future mental health, functioning and wellbeing. It will also suggest ways of promoting the use of better coping and emotion regulation skills. [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|Picture of a person experiencing stress.|566x566px]] [[File:Ask yourself.png]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is coping? *What is emotion? *What is the relationship between coping and emotion? *Why is understanding this relationship important? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is coping? == [[File:Noun Planning 1325509.svg|thumb|Problem-focused coping]] Coping refers to how an individual adapts to, manages or alters a challenging or stressful situation. It is an intentional and conscious response to stress that aims to reduce it by either solving the problem (problem-focused coping) or regulating the emotional or attentional response the stressor triggered (emotion-focused coping). Coping is often applied to long-lasting stressors like bereavement, tragedy, loss or diagnosis of a chronic, incurable or life threatening disease (Austenfeld, & Stanton, 2004, Compas, Jaser, & Williams, 2014, Ehsan, Hadadi, Moradi, Pishva, & Pouladi, 2011, Gembek, & Skinner, 2016, Kleinert, Pels, & Schafer, 2020, Kutlu, Musabak, & Tuncay, 2008, Ong & Thompson, 2019, Stanislawski, 2019). === Coping theories and strategies === The most appropriate coping strategy to use depends on the situation. There are many conceptual models of coping and a lot of commonality among them; for example approach coping is very similar to both Lazarus and Folkman’s problem-focused and emotion-focussed strategies, as it includes any behavioural, cognitive or emotional activity directed towards solving the problem (Brief COPE inventory){fact}}. Most researchers of coping agree that being able to use a variety of coping strategies in a wide range of stressful situations is most helpful, as different stressful situations may require different coping strategies (Dubow & Rubinlicht, 2011, Stanislawski, 2019, Kleinert, et al., 2020). For example avoidance coping, an approach that is usually considered maladaptive can be helpful in certain situations, as some of its strategies like distraction can be used to prevent stress from getting too overwhelming. One of the most well-known conceptual models of coping is Lazarus and Folkman’s Problem-focused vs Emotion-focused model (Dubow & Rubinlicht, 2011). [[File:Noun emotion 1325508.svg|thumb|Emotion-focused coping]] {| class="wikitable" |'''Problem-Focused coping strategies''' |'''Emotion-Focused coping strategies''' |- |<nowiki>-Problem Solving</nowiki> -Planning -Cognitive Restructuring -Defining the problem -Seeking social support |<nowiki>-Positive reappraisal</nowiki> -Emotional venting -Using substances to suppress emotions -Acceptance -Avoidance -Distraction -Relaxation |} Problem-focused coping strategies are useful in situations where it is possible to solve the problem causing the stress by using available resources, altering perception or seeking social support.  Emotion-focused coping strategies are most useful in situations in which circumstances are out of the individual’s control. In these situations the individual instead focuses their attention on regulating their emotional response to the stressor using positive reappraisal, acceptance, emotional venting, distraction, relaxation, meditation, suppression and avoidance (Austenfeld, & Stanton, 2004, Dubow & Rubinlicht, 2011, Engstrom, Kristofferzon, & Nilsson, 2018, Kutlu, et al., 2008). Other models include approach vs avoidance, voluntary vs involuntary, engagement vs disengagement, primary control vs secondary control, mature vs immature, positive-focus, support, active and evasive coping.   [[File:Shuttle Box Dog Orange.png|thumb|535x535px]] {| class="wikitable" |'''Approach Coping''' |'''Avoidance Coping''' |- |<nowiki>-Problem Solving</nowiki> -Information Seeking -positive framing -planning -acceptance |<nowiki>-Distraction</nowiki> -Distancing -Avoidance -Denial -resting more -Substance use -venting -self blame |} {| class="wikitable" |'''Positive-focus Coping''' |'''Support Coping''' |'''Active Coping''' |'''Evasive Coping''' |- |<nowiki>-Acceptance</nowiki> -Positive reframing -Humor |<nowiki>-Instrumental support</nowiki> -Emotional support -Religion |<nowiki>-Problem-focused coping</nowiki> -Planning |<nowiki>-Self Blame</nowiki> -Denial -Venting of Emotions |} What coping strategies do you use? Find out here https://psychologia.co/coping-strategies/ === Why coping skills are important === Having healthy coping skills can help us get through tough times. Managing our stress can help us to feel better physically and mentally.{{fact}} Using appropriate coping skills can protect us against poor mental health outcomes and is associated with high quality of life and effective emotional regulation (Kutlu, et al., 2008). Our chosen style of coping can determine whether or not we are resilient in the face of stress (Gembek, & Skinner, 2016). Stress reduction is very important as chronic stress often leads to negative health consequences (Kleinert, et al., 2020). Healthy coping skills can help to reduce stress, increase resilience and our ability to recover quickly from stressful situations (Ong & Thompson, 2019, Williams, 2018). Both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping styles including active coping, planning, cognitive reappraisal and humour have a strong negative relationship with depression such that individuals who use these strategies are less likely to develop or worsen existing depression (Adeyemo, Ijarogbe, Obembe, & Ogun, 2019, Ong & Thompson, 2019). Approach coping strategies are particularly important because not attending to stressful situations can extend the stressful situation and make the problem worse (Williams, 2018). === Problems associated with poor coping skills === Ongoing stress is a risk factor for mental health conditions, so learning to deal with stress is a very important skill. There are some coping strategies however, that are more effective at reducing stress than others; for example reappraisal is very effective whereas denial or avoidance may actually worsen or prolong stress (Beyond Blue, Kleinert, et al., 2020).  Unhealthy coping skills such as high emotion-oriented coping, venting of emotions, self blame, denial, distraction and suppression are associated with increased distress leading to anxiety and substance abuse as well as disordered eating, sleeping or over spending, depression, avoidance and helplessness (Stanislawski, 2019).   Helplessness is a combination of problem avoidance and negative emotional coping (Stanislawski, 2019).  It is a maladaptive form of coping that includes thoughts of exaggerated limitations and negative aspects of the situation and is closely related to avoidance. Avoidance is considered maladaptive because choosing to avoid unwanted thoughts and negative emotions, rather than attempting to alter them, means that the stressful situation and negative emotions will still be present and unresolved despite efforts to keep them out of awareness. It is also associated with the development of borderline and avoidant personality disorders, depression, anxiety and increased risk of suicidal behaviour (Hang, Huijie, Jingjin, Qinghua, & Weiping, 2019, Ong & Thompson, 2019). === Factors that influence coping strategies we choose to use === Our ability to cope is often affected by previous experiences we have had with similar stressors and their consequences (Ehsan, Hadadi, Moradi, Pishva, & Pouladi, 2011). In other words the way we deal with challenges now will influence the way we cope with similar situations in the future (Gembek, & Skinner, 2016). Emotions like anxiety may motivate an individual to avoid situations perceived as threatening (Almeida, Cockshott, Greenwood, Hewlett, Kirwan, Lowe, & Richards, 2008). On the other hand a person who feels able to to regulate and tolerate negative emotions is less likely less likely to use avoidance coping strategies because they would not feel the need to avoid the stressful situation and would tend to prefer using positive reframing which is associated with less stress (Kleinert, et al., 2020). Our choice of coping strategy can also be influenced by our level of emotional intelligence, gender, age, personality, self-efficacy, optimism, internal or external control resources, extroversion, confidence, environmental factors and social skills as well as the characteristics of the stressor. (Ehsan, et al., 2011, Kleinert, et al., 2020). Efficacy and appraisal seem to be a particularly important factors in determining what coping strategies we use and their emotional outcomes. For example, if the individual is pessimistic, acceptance coping may be viewed as giving up, while if the individual is optimistic the same coping strategy may can be viewed as going with the flow (Almeida, et al., 2008, Ehsan, et al., 2011). == What is emotion? == Emotions are expressive, purposeful feelings and bodily responses that help us to adapt to opportunities and challenges in life. They can alert us to threats and rewards and have the power to motivate and guide our actions based on our thoughts, feelings, appraisals, schemas and interpretation of the situation (Chowdhury, 2020).  According to the cognitive perspective of emotion it is the appraisal of the stressor, not the stressor itself, that causes emotion and those conscious and unconscious thoughts are what determine our emotional reaction.   These thoughts often include whether or not the situation was expected, whether it is positive or negative, our level of control, efficacy, over the situation, cause attribution and whether or not we can cope with it. During an emotional reaction the individual experiences bodily, attentional, cognitive and behavioural changes including tears, recollection of sad memories and withdrawal if the emotional reaction is sadness. The emotional reaction is then interpreted to determine the best way to respond to the problem. During this process the individual decides whether or not they can cope with the situation and if so how (Alkozei, Killgore, & Smith, 2017). [[File:How emotions are triggered.png|704x704px]] === Emotional intelligence and regulation === Emotional intelligence is our ability to observe and differentiate between feelings and emotions and use this information to inform our thoughts, activities and to create positive consequences in our relationships with ourselves and others (Ehsan, et al., 2011). Emotion-regulation is a set of processes used to influence the emotions we have and our ability to effectively monitor, evaluate and modify negative emotions to cope with difficult situations (Chowdhury, M, R., 2020, Kleinert, et al., 2020, Ong & Thompson, 2019, Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). === The emotion regulation process === The emotion regulation process model includes cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression (Ong & Thompson, 2019). '''-Cognitive appraisal''' is used before an emotional response has been fully generated and attempts to reinterpret a stressful situation in a way that changes the meaning and emotional impact of the stressor and is associated with positive emotional coping (Stanislawski, 2019). '''-Expressive suppression''' is a response focused strategy that acts later in the emotion generation process and attempts to hide or reduce the emotion evoked by the stressful situation. It is not useful at reducing the experience of negative emotions but can limit the expression of behaviours associated with the negative emotions and is related to problem-focussed and avoidance coping strategies (Stanislawski, 2019). Emotions can be regulated at various points throughout the processing of an emotional response by modifying the situation, altering our attention and thoughts about the situation (Given, Lehto, & Wierenga, 2017). Emotional regulation strategy choices made during emotional episodes are known as proactive strategies, while strategy choices made after an emotional episode are called reactive strategies. Proactive strategies include avoiding the situation or making it less likely to happen, trying to gain control over the situation, distraction or rumination or changing the way we think about the situation in hopes of reducing its emotional impact. Reactive strategies usually involve suppression of the feelings or bodily responses of the emotion. {| class="wikitable" |'''Proactive Strategies''' |'''Reactive Strategies''' |- |'''Situation Selection:''' taking action to make the emotional experience less likely to occur or avoiding it. '''Situation Modification:''' efforts to gain control over the situation. Problem-focused coping. '''Attentional Focus:''' distracting oneself from the situation or thinking too much on the situation. '''Reappraisal:''' changing the way we think about the situation in order to reduce its emotional impact.   |'''Suppression:''' efforts to lessen the feeling or bodily response associated with the emotion. For example taking a deep breath. |} === Why emotional regulation is important === Emotion regulation skills help us to be more self-aware, mindful and gain a broader and better perception of our problems allowing us to react more positively, adapt and actively modify or accept our emotions in order to feel better and increase our tolerance to negative emotions and stress. These skills are important for preventing chronic stress, promoting psychological health and development of executive cognitive functions and social competence (Chowdhury, M, R., 2020, Hjemdal,et al., 2018, Kleinert, et al., 2020). Emotional regulation skill predicts the individual’s ability to function and cope and has been found to have a positive correlation with hope and self-esteem (Austenfeld & Stanton, 2004).  It can also minimise cognitive dissonance, negative psychological symptoms and burnout and allow the individual to tolerate uncertainty, refocus and make more accurate appraisals of a stressful situation (Given, Lehto, & Wierenga, 2017, Kleinert, et al., 2020). === Problems associated with poor emotional regulation === Healthy emotion regulation strategies can help to diffuse strong emotions while unhealthy emotion regulation strategies may leave lasting damage and no resolution (Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). {| class="wikitable" |'''Healthy Emotion Regulation Strategies''' |'''Unhealthy Emotion Regulation Strategies''' |- |<nowiki>-Talking with friends</nowiki> -exercising -keeping a journal -meditation -therapy -taking care of self when unwell -getting enough sleep -Taking a break when needed |<nowiki>-Distraction</nowiki> -Abusing alcohol or drugs -Self-harm -avoiding difficult situations -physical or verbal aggression -excessive social media use in place of other responsibilities |} People with poor emotional regulation tend to have trouble acquiring social support in stressful situations and are more likely to use more avoidance-focused coping strategies and expressive suppression which are associated with higher levels of internalising symptoms, anxiety, depression and suicide risk (Ehsan, et al., 2011, Hjemdal,et al., 2018, Ong & Thompson, 2019). == What is the relationship between coping and emotion? == Coping and emotion are distinct but closely related constructs that share several functions and goals including the process of emotion regulation. Coping processes include procedures used to manage emotions, reduce distress and maintain positive emotions and is sometimes considered a special category of emotion regulation because its primary aim is to reduce or eliminate the impact stress or regulate emotion (Almeida, et al., 2008, Compas, Jaser, & Williams, 2014, Ehsan, et al., 2011, Hjemdal, et al., 2018, Ong & Thompson, 2019, Williams, 2018). It has been suggested that, in the relationship between coping and emotion, the coping strategy used is the independent variable and the emotional outcome from using that particular coping strategy is the dependent variable as it provides a way of measuring the effectiveness of the coping strategy (Almeida, et al., 2008). # '''Emotion as an antecedent of coping:''' Emotion precedes, influences and motivates coping by alerting us that there is a problem. # '''Coping as a function of emotion regulation:''' Coping functions as a form of emotion regulation either remedying the problem or altering the emotional response to the stressor. The coping strategy used is determined by the individual’s sense of efficacy, appraisal and interpretation of the emotion. # '''Emotion as a consequence or measure of the effectiveness of the coping strategy:''' The resulting emotion following the use of a coping strategy is a measure of the effectiveness of the coping strategy.   [[File:The relationship between coping and emotion.png|782x782px]] The impact of coping on emotional outcomes depends on underlying efficacy appraisals, optimism or pessimism such that those who regularly experience overwhelming negative emotions are much more likely to use unhealthy emotion regulation and coping strategies resulting in worse or no change in the situation (Richardson, & Rolston, 2020)(Almeida, et al., 2008). Some research has combined emotional regulation and coping strategies indicating that there is similarity or overlap between the two. According to this research emotion regulation and coping strategies can be divided into adaptive and maladaptive strategies (Gorgen, Hiller, & Witthoft, 2014). {| class="wikitable" |'''Adaptive emotion regulation and coping strategies''' |'''Maladaptive emotion regulation and coping strategies''' |- |<nowiki>-acceptance</nowiki> -Positive refocusing -Planning -reappraisal -putting things into perspective |<nowiki>-rumination</nowiki> -catastrophizing -Blaming of self or others -Emotional suppression -Avoidance |} == Conclusion == Coping and emotion are distinct but interconnected constructs that influence, motivate and validated each other. Our ability to cope and regulate emotions effectively is important for building resilience to life stressors and understanding the relationship between coping and emotion can help to determine ways of preventing and treating behavioural and mental disorders (Compas,et al., 2014, Ehsan, et al., 2011, Ong & Thompson, 2019). Learning how to understand the relationship between our thoughts, emotions, behaviours and coping skills is very important. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy addresses this relationship and can be very beneficial for those who have poor emotional regulation and maladaptive coping styles (Compas,et al., 2014, Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). Better self-efficacy improves outcomes from coping and emotional regulation techniques learned in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. Self Efficacy is the belief that we can or can’t do something. These beliefs are based on our own personal behaviour history, experiences and social appraisal but can be changed or enhanced through therapy.  Efficacy can also determine the extent to which we cope in stressful situations and whether we address (problem focused coping) or avoid the problem (Almeida, et al., 2008). == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Coping|Coping]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Expressive writing and emotion regulation|Expressive writing and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Fatigue and emotion|Fatigue and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Post-traumatic growth|Post-traumatic growth]] (Book chapter, 2020) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Adeyemo, S., Ijarogbe, G. T., Obembe, O. B., & Ogun, O. C. (2019). The relationship between coping styles and depression among caregivers of children with cerebral palsy in Nigeria, West Africa. ''Archive of Clinical Psychiatry, 46'' (6). 145-150. doi: 10.1590/0101-6083000000215 Alkozei, A., Killgore, W., & Sith, R. (2017). How Do Emotions Work? Frontiers for Young Minds. 5(69). doi: 10.3389/frym.2017.00069 Almeida, C., Cockshott, Z., Greenwood, R., Hewlett, S., Kirwan, J. R., Lowe, R., & Richards, P. (2008). Self-efficacy as an appraisal that moderates the coping-emotion relationship: Associations among people with rheumatoid arthritis. P''sychology and Health. 23''(2). 155-174. doi: 10.1080/14768320601139160 Austenfeld, J. L., & Stanton, A. L. (2004). Coping Through Emotional Approach: A New Look at Emotion, Coping and Health-Related Outcomes. ''Journal of Personality. 72''(6). Beyond Blue https://healthyfamilies.beyondblue.org.au/age-13/raising-resilient-young-people/managing-emotions-and-stress Brief COPE. Retrieved October 21, 2020 from, https://novopsych.com.au/assessments/brief-cope/ Chowdhury, M, R. What is Emotion Regulation? Retrieved October 20, 2020 from, https://positivepsychology.com/emotion-regulation/ Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., & Williams, E. K. (2014). Coping and Emotion from Childhood to Early Adulthood: Points of Convergence and Divergence. ''Aust Journal of Psychology. 66''(2). 71-81. Doi:10.1111/ajpy.12043 Dubow, E. F., and Rubinlincht, M. (2011). Encyclopaedia of Adolescence. Ehsan, H. B., Hadadi, P., Moradi, A., Pishva, N., & Pouladi, F. (2011). The Relationship between Coping strategies and Emotional Intelligence. ''Social and Behavioural Sciences. 30''. 748-751. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.146 Engstrom, M., Kristofferzon, M. J., & Nilsson, A. (2018). Coping mediates the relationship between sense of coherence and mental quality of life in patients with chronic illness: a cross-sectional study. ''Quality of Life Research. 27''. 1855-1863. doi: 10.1007/s11136-018-1845-0 Gembek, M. J. Z, & Skinner, E. A. (2016). The Development of Coping: Implications for Psychopathology and Resilience. Risk, Resilience and Intervention. 4. doi: 10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy410 Given, B., Lehto, R. H., & Wierenga, K. L. (2017). Emotion Regulation in Chronic Disease Populations: An Integrative Review. ''Res Theory Nurs Pract. 31''(3). 247-271. doi: 10.1891/1541-6577.31.3.247 Gorgen, S. M., Hiller, W., & Witthoft, M. (2014). Health Anxiety, Cognitive Coping and Emotion Regulation: A Latent Variable Approach. International Society of Behavioural Medicine. 21. 364-374. doi: 10.1007/s12529-013-9297-y Hang, Y., Huijie, L., Jingjin, S., Qinghua, Z., & Weiping, D. (2019). Commonalities and differences in Psychological Adjustment to Chronic Illnesses Among Older Adults: a Comparative Study Based on the Stress and Coping Paradigm. International Journal of Behavioural Medicine. 26(2). 143-153. doi: 10.1007/s12529-019-09773-8 Hjemdal, O., Holen, S., Loevaas, M. E. S., Martinsen, K., Neumer, S. P., Patras, J., Reinfjell, T., & Sund, A. M. (2018). Emotion regulation and its relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression in children aged 8-12 years: does parental gender play a differentiating role? BMC Psychology. 6(42). Kleinert, J., Pils, F., & Schafer, A. (2020). Coping strategies as mediators within the relationship between emotion-regulation and perceived stress in teachers. International Journal of Emotional Education. 12. 35-47. Kutlu, M., Musabak, I., & Tuncay, T. (2008). The relationship between anxiety, coping strategies and characteristics of patients with diabetes. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes. 6(79). doi: 10.1186/1477-7525-6-79 Ong, E., & Thompson, C. (2019). The Importance of Coping and Emotion Regulation in the Occurrence of Suicidal Behaviour. Mental & Physical Health. 122(4). 1192-1210. doi: 10.1177/0033294118781855 Richardson, E. L., & Rolston, A. (2020). What is emotion regulation and how do we do it? Cornell Research Program. Stanislawski, K. (2019). The Coping Circumplex Model: An Integrative Model of the Structure of Coping With Stress. Frontiers in Psychology. 
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg Williams, S. (2018). 6 Keys to the Good Life: #5 Coping Skills. Retrieved on October 19th 2020 from https://serenitymentalhealthcenters.com/6-keys-to-the-good-life-5-coping-skills/ }} ==External links== {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] mbky1y8tvwt81b2jcb19yk0psaemgxf 2830347 2830346 2026-09-02T01:53:53Z U3270398 3108645 /* External links */ Added to empty External links section (APA, The Conversation) 2830347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Coping and emotion:<br>What is the relationship between coping and emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/JOP5-4bl6s0}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Most people experience a range of emotions everyday. Sometimes these emotions can seem overwhelming and out of control. Such situations can trigger a strong desire for us to do something about it in order to cope (Gembek, & Skinner, 2016, Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). This chapter discusses the relationship between coping and emotion and why this relationship is important in determining our current and future mental health, functioning and wellbeing. It will also suggest ways of promoting the use of better coping and emotion regulation skills. [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|Picture of a person experiencing stress.|566x566px]] [[File:Ask yourself.png]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is coping? *What is emotion? *What is the relationship between coping and emotion? *Why is understanding this relationship important? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is coping? == [[File:Noun Planning 1325509.svg|thumb|Problem-focused coping]] Coping refers to how an individual adapts to, manages or alters a challenging or stressful situation. It is an intentional and conscious response to stress that aims to reduce it by either solving the problem (problem-focused coping) or regulating the emotional or attentional response the stressor triggered (emotion-focused coping). Coping is often applied to long-lasting stressors like bereavement, tragedy, loss or diagnosis of a chronic, incurable or life threatening disease (Austenfeld, & Stanton, 2004, Compas, Jaser, & Williams, 2014, Ehsan, Hadadi, Moradi, Pishva, & Pouladi, 2011, Gembek, & Skinner, 2016, Kleinert, Pels, & Schafer, 2020, Kutlu, Musabak, & Tuncay, 2008, Ong & Thompson, 2019, Stanislawski, 2019). === Coping theories and strategies === The most appropriate coping strategy to use depends on the situation. There are many conceptual models of coping and a lot of commonality among them; for example approach coping is very similar to both Lazarus and Folkman’s problem-focused and emotion-focussed strategies, as it includes any behavioural, cognitive or emotional activity directed towards solving the problem (Brief COPE inventory){fact}}. Most researchers of coping agree that being able to use a variety of coping strategies in a wide range of stressful situations is most helpful, as different stressful situations may require different coping strategies (Dubow & Rubinlicht, 2011, Stanislawski, 2019, Kleinert, et al., 2020). For example avoidance coping, an approach that is usually considered maladaptive can be helpful in certain situations, as some of its strategies like distraction can be used to prevent stress from getting too overwhelming. One of the most well-known conceptual models of coping is Lazarus and Folkman’s Problem-focused vs Emotion-focused model (Dubow & Rubinlicht, 2011). [[File:Noun emotion 1325508.svg|thumb|Emotion-focused coping]] {| class="wikitable" |'''Problem-Focused coping strategies''' |'''Emotion-Focused coping strategies''' |- |<nowiki>-Problem Solving</nowiki> -Planning -Cognitive Restructuring -Defining the problem -Seeking social support |<nowiki>-Positive reappraisal</nowiki> -Emotional venting -Using substances to suppress emotions -Acceptance -Avoidance -Distraction -Relaxation |} Problem-focused coping strategies are useful in situations where it is possible to solve the problem causing the stress by using available resources, altering perception or seeking social support.  Emotion-focused coping strategies are most useful in situations in which circumstances are out of the individual’s control. In these situations the individual instead focuses their attention on regulating their emotional response to the stressor using positive reappraisal, acceptance, emotional venting, distraction, relaxation, meditation, suppression and avoidance (Austenfeld, & Stanton, 2004, Dubow & Rubinlicht, 2011, Engstrom, Kristofferzon, & Nilsson, 2018, Kutlu, et al., 2008). Other models include approach vs avoidance, voluntary vs involuntary, engagement vs disengagement, primary control vs secondary control, mature vs immature, positive-focus, support, active and evasive coping.   [[File:Shuttle Box Dog Orange.png|thumb|535x535px]] {| class="wikitable" |'''Approach Coping''' |'''Avoidance Coping''' |- |<nowiki>-Problem Solving</nowiki> -Information Seeking -positive framing -planning -acceptance |<nowiki>-Distraction</nowiki> -Distancing -Avoidance -Denial -resting more -Substance use -venting -self blame |} {| class="wikitable" |'''Positive-focus Coping''' |'''Support Coping''' |'''Active Coping''' |'''Evasive Coping''' |- |<nowiki>-Acceptance</nowiki> -Positive reframing -Humor |<nowiki>-Instrumental support</nowiki> -Emotional support -Religion |<nowiki>-Problem-focused coping</nowiki> -Planning |<nowiki>-Self Blame</nowiki> -Denial -Venting of Emotions |} What coping strategies do you use? Find out here https://psychologia.co/coping-strategies/ === Why coping skills are important === Having healthy coping skills can help us get through tough times. Managing our stress can help us to feel better physically and mentally.{{fact}} Using appropriate coping skills can protect us against poor mental health outcomes and is associated with high quality of life and effective emotional regulation (Kutlu, et al., 2008). Our chosen style of coping can determine whether or not we are resilient in the face of stress (Gembek, & Skinner, 2016). Stress reduction is very important as chronic stress often leads to negative health consequences (Kleinert, et al., 2020). Healthy coping skills can help to reduce stress, increase resilience and our ability to recover quickly from stressful situations (Ong & Thompson, 2019, Williams, 2018). Both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping styles including active coping, planning, cognitive reappraisal and humour have a strong negative relationship with depression such that individuals who use these strategies are less likely to develop or worsen existing depression (Adeyemo, Ijarogbe, Obembe, & Ogun, 2019, Ong & Thompson, 2019). Approach coping strategies are particularly important because not attending to stressful situations can extend the stressful situation and make the problem worse (Williams, 2018). === Problems associated with poor coping skills === Ongoing stress is a risk factor for mental health conditions, so learning to deal with stress is a very important skill. There are some coping strategies however, that are more effective at reducing stress than others; for example reappraisal is very effective whereas denial or avoidance may actually worsen or prolong stress (Beyond Blue, Kleinert, et al., 2020).  Unhealthy coping skills such as high emotion-oriented coping, venting of emotions, self blame, denial, distraction and suppression are associated with increased distress leading to anxiety and substance abuse as well as disordered eating, sleeping or over spending, depression, avoidance and helplessness (Stanislawski, 2019).   Helplessness is a combination of problem avoidance and negative emotional coping (Stanislawski, 2019).  It is a maladaptive form of coping that includes thoughts of exaggerated limitations and negative aspects of the situation and is closely related to avoidance. Avoidance is considered maladaptive because choosing to avoid unwanted thoughts and negative emotions, rather than attempting to alter them, means that the stressful situation and negative emotions will still be present and unresolved despite efforts to keep them out of awareness. It is also associated with the development of borderline and avoidant personality disorders, depression, anxiety and increased risk of suicidal behaviour (Hang, Huijie, Jingjin, Qinghua, & Weiping, 2019, Ong & Thompson, 2019). === Factors that influence coping strategies we choose to use === Our ability to cope is often affected by previous experiences we have had with similar stressors and their consequences (Ehsan, Hadadi, Moradi, Pishva, & Pouladi, 2011). In other words the way we deal with challenges now will influence the way we cope with similar situations in the future (Gembek, & Skinner, 2016). Emotions like anxiety may motivate an individual to avoid situations perceived as threatening (Almeida, Cockshott, Greenwood, Hewlett, Kirwan, Lowe, & Richards, 2008). On the other hand a person who feels able to to regulate and tolerate negative emotions is less likely less likely to use avoidance coping strategies because they would not feel the need to avoid the stressful situation and would tend to prefer using positive reframing which is associated with less stress (Kleinert, et al., 2020). Our choice of coping strategy can also be influenced by our level of emotional intelligence, gender, age, personality, self-efficacy, optimism, internal or external control resources, extroversion, confidence, environmental factors and social skills as well as the characteristics of the stressor. (Ehsan, et al., 2011, Kleinert, et al., 2020). Efficacy and appraisal seem to be a particularly important factors in determining what coping strategies we use and their emotional outcomes. For example, if the individual is pessimistic, acceptance coping may be viewed as giving up, while if the individual is optimistic the same coping strategy may can be viewed as going with the flow (Almeida, et al., 2008, Ehsan, et al., 2011). == What is emotion? == Emotions are expressive, purposeful feelings and bodily responses that help us to adapt to opportunities and challenges in life. They can alert us to threats and rewards and have the power to motivate and guide our actions based on our thoughts, feelings, appraisals, schemas and interpretation of the situation (Chowdhury, 2020).  According to the cognitive perspective of emotion it is the appraisal of the stressor, not the stressor itself, that causes emotion and those conscious and unconscious thoughts are what determine our emotional reaction.   These thoughts often include whether or not the situation was expected, whether it is positive or negative, our level of control, efficacy, over the situation, cause attribution and whether or not we can cope with it. During an emotional reaction the individual experiences bodily, attentional, cognitive and behavioural changes including tears, recollection of sad memories and withdrawal if the emotional reaction is sadness. The emotional reaction is then interpreted to determine the best way to respond to the problem. During this process the individual decides whether or not they can cope with the situation and if so how (Alkozei, Killgore, & Smith, 2017). [[File:How emotions are triggered.png|704x704px]] === Emotional intelligence and regulation === Emotional intelligence is our ability to observe and differentiate between feelings and emotions and use this information to inform our thoughts, activities and to create positive consequences in our relationships with ourselves and others (Ehsan, et al., 2011). Emotion-regulation is a set of processes used to influence the emotions we have and our ability to effectively monitor, evaluate and modify negative emotions to cope with difficult situations (Chowdhury, M, R., 2020, Kleinert, et al., 2020, Ong & Thompson, 2019, Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). === The emotion regulation process === The emotion regulation process model includes cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression (Ong & Thompson, 2019). '''-Cognitive appraisal''' is used before an emotional response has been fully generated and attempts to reinterpret a stressful situation in a way that changes the meaning and emotional impact of the stressor and is associated with positive emotional coping (Stanislawski, 2019). '''-Expressive suppression''' is a response focused strategy that acts later in the emotion generation process and attempts to hide or reduce the emotion evoked by the stressful situation. It is not useful at reducing the experience of negative emotions but can limit the expression of behaviours associated with the negative emotions and is related to problem-focussed and avoidance coping strategies (Stanislawski, 2019). Emotions can be regulated at various points throughout the processing of an emotional response by modifying the situation, altering our attention and thoughts about the situation (Given, Lehto, & Wierenga, 2017). Emotional regulation strategy choices made during emotional episodes are known as proactive strategies, while strategy choices made after an emotional episode are called reactive strategies. Proactive strategies include avoiding the situation or making it less likely to happen, trying to gain control over the situation, distraction or rumination or changing the way we think about the situation in hopes of reducing its emotional impact. Reactive strategies usually involve suppression of the feelings or bodily responses of the emotion. {| class="wikitable" |'''Proactive Strategies''' |'''Reactive Strategies''' |- |'''Situation Selection:''' taking action to make the emotional experience less likely to occur or avoiding it. '''Situation Modification:''' efforts to gain control over the situation. Problem-focused coping. '''Attentional Focus:''' distracting oneself from the situation or thinking too much on the situation. '''Reappraisal:''' changing the way we think about the situation in order to reduce its emotional impact.   |'''Suppression:''' efforts to lessen the feeling or bodily response associated with the emotion. For example taking a deep breath. |} === Why emotional regulation is important === Emotion regulation skills help us to be more self-aware, mindful and gain a broader and better perception of our problems allowing us to react more positively, adapt and actively modify or accept our emotions in order to feel better and increase our tolerance to negative emotions and stress. These skills are important for preventing chronic stress, promoting psychological health and development of executive cognitive functions and social competence (Chowdhury, M, R., 2020, Hjemdal,et al., 2018, Kleinert, et al., 2020). Emotional regulation skill predicts the individual’s ability to function and cope and has been found to have a positive correlation with hope and self-esteem (Austenfeld & Stanton, 2004).  It can also minimise cognitive dissonance, negative psychological symptoms and burnout and allow the individual to tolerate uncertainty, refocus and make more accurate appraisals of a stressful situation (Given, Lehto, & Wierenga, 2017, Kleinert, et al., 2020). === Problems associated with poor emotional regulation === Healthy emotion regulation strategies can help to diffuse strong emotions while unhealthy emotion regulation strategies may leave lasting damage and no resolution (Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). {| class="wikitable" |'''Healthy Emotion Regulation Strategies''' |'''Unhealthy Emotion Regulation Strategies''' |- |<nowiki>-Talking with friends</nowiki> -exercising -keeping a journal -meditation -therapy -taking care of self when unwell -getting enough sleep -Taking a break when needed |<nowiki>-Distraction</nowiki> -Abusing alcohol or drugs -Self-harm -avoiding difficult situations -physical or verbal aggression -excessive social media use in place of other responsibilities |} People with poor emotional regulation tend to have trouble acquiring social support in stressful situations and are more likely to use more avoidance-focused coping strategies and expressive suppression which are associated with higher levels of internalising symptoms, anxiety, depression and suicide risk (Ehsan, et al., 2011, Hjemdal,et al., 2018, Ong & Thompson, 2019). == What is the relationship between coping and emotion? == Coping and emotion are distinct but closely related constructs that share several functions and goals including the process of emotion regulation. Coping processes include procedures used to manage emotions, reduce distress and maintain positive emotions and is sometimes considered a special category of emotion regulation because its primary aim is to reduce or eliminate the impact stress or regulate emotion (Almeida, et al., 2008, Compas, Jaser, & Williams, 2014, Ehsan, et al., 2011, Hjemdal, et al., 2018, Ong & Thompson, 2019, Williams, 2018). It has been suggested that, in the relationship between coping and emotion, the coping strategy used is the independent variable and the emotional outcome from using that particular coping strategy is the dependent variable as it provides a way of measuring the effectiveness of the coping strategy (Almeida, et al., 2008). # '''Emotion as an antecedent of coping:''' Emotion precedes, influences and motivates coping by alerting us that there is a problem. # '''Coping as a function of emotion regulation:''' Coping functions as a form of emotion regulation either remedying the problem or altering the emotional response to the stressor. The coping strategy used is determined by the individual’s sense of efficacy, appraisal and interpretation of the emotion. # '''Emotion as a consequence or measure of the effectiveness of the coping strategy:''' The resulting emotion following the use of a coping strategy is a measure of the effectiveness of the coping strategy.   [[File:The relationship between coping and emotion.png|782x782px]] The impact of coping on emotional outcomes depends on underlying efficacy appraisals, optimism or pessimism such that those who regularly experience overwhelming negative emotions are much more likely to use unhealthy emotion regulation and coping strategies resulting in worse or no change in the situation (Richardson, & Rolston, 2020)(Almeida, et al., 2008). Some research has combined emotional regulation and coping strategies indicating that there is similarity or overlap between the two. According to this research emotion regulation and coping strategies can be divided into adaptive and maladaptive strategies (Gorgen, Hiller, & Witthoft, 2014). {| class="wikitable" |'''Adaptive emotion regulation and coping strategies''' |'''Maladaptive emotion regulation and coping strategies''' |- |<nowiki>-acceptance</nowiki> -Positive refocusing -Planning -reappraisal -putting things into perspective |<nowiki>-rumination</nowiki> -catastrophizing -Blaming of self or others -Emotional suppression -Avoidance |} == Conclusion == Coping and emotion are distinct but interconnected constructs that influence, motivate and validated each other. Our ability to cope and regulate emotions effectively is important for building resilience to life stressors and understanding the relationship between coping and emotion can help to determine ways of preventing and treating behavioural and mental disorders (Compas,et al., 2014, Ehsan, et al., 2011, Ong & Thompson, 2019). Learning how to understand the relationship between our thoughts, emotions, behaviours and coping skills is very important. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy addresses this relationship and can be very beneficial for those who have poor emotional regulation and maladaptive coping styles (Compas,et al., 2014, Richardson, & Rolston, 2020). Better self-efficacy improves outcomes from coping and emotional regulation techniques learned in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. Self Efficacy is the belief that we can or can’t do something. These beliefs are based on our own personal behaviour history, experiences and social appraisal but can be changed or enhanced through therapy.  Efficacy can also determine the extent to which we cope in stressful situations and whether we address (problem focused coping) or avoid the problem (Almeida, et al., 2008). == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Coping|Coping]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Expressive writing and emotion regulation|Expressive writing and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Fatigue and emotion|Fatigue and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Post-traumatic growth|Post-traumatic growth]] (Book chapter, 2020) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Adeyemo, S., Ijarogbe, G. T., Obembe, O. B., & Ogun, O. C. (2019). The relationship between coping styles and depression among caregivers of children with cerebral palsy in Nigeria, West Africa. ''Archive of Clinical Psychiatry, 46'' (6). 145-150. doi: 10.1590/0101-6083000000215 Alkozei, A., Killgore, W., & Sith, R. (2017). How Do Emotions Work? Frontiers for Young Minds. 5(69). doi: 10.3389/frym.2017.00069 Almeida, C., Cockshott, Z., Greenwood, R., Hewlett, S., Kirwan, J. R., Lowe, R., & Richards, P. (2008). Self-efficacy as an appraisal that moderates the coping-emotion relationship: Associations among people with rheumatoid arthritis. P''sychology and Health. 23''(2). 155-174. doi: 10.1080/14768320601139160 Austenfeld, J. L., & Stanton, A. L. (2004). Coping Through Emotional Approach: A New Look at Emotion, Coping and Health-Related Outcomes. ''Journal of Personality. 72''(6). Beyond Blue https://healthyfamilies.beyondblue.org.au/age-13/raising-resilient-young-people/managing-emotions-and-stress Brief COPE. Retrieved October 21, 2020 from, https://novopsych.com.au/assessments/brief-cope/ Chowdhury, M, R. What is Emotion Regulation? Retrieved October 20, 2020 from, https://positivepsychology.com/emotion-regulation/ Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., & Williams, E. K. (2014). Coping and Emotion from Childhood to Early Adulthood: Points of Convergence and Divergence. ''Aust Journal of Psychology. 66''(2). 71-81. Doi:10.1111/ajpy.12043 Dubow, E. F., and Rubinlincht, M. (2011). Encyclopaedia of Adolescence. Ehsan, H. B., Hadadi, P., Moradi, A., Pishva, N., & Pouladi, F. (2011). The Relationship between Coping strategies and Emotional Intelligence. ''Social and Behavioural Sciences. 30''. 748-751. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.146 Engstrom, M., Kristofferzon, M. J., & Nilsson, A. (2018). Coping mediates the relationship between sense of coherence and mental quality of life in patients with chronic illness: a cross-sectional study. ''Quality of Life Research. 27''. 1855-1863. doi: 10.1007/s11136-018-1845-0 Gembek, M. J. Z, & Skinner, E. A. (2016). The Development of Coping: Implications for Psychopathology and Resilience. Risk, Resilience and Intervention. 4. doi: 10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy410 Given, B., Lehto, R. H., & Wierenga, K. L. (2017). Emotion Regulation in Chronic Disease Populations: An Integrative Review. ''Res Theory Nurs Pract. 31''(3). 247-271. doi: 10.1891/1541-6577.31.3.247 Gorgen, S. M., Hiller, W., & Witthoft, M. (2014). Health Anxiety, Cognitive Coping and Emotion Regulation: A Latent Variable Approach. International Society of Behavioural Medicine. 21. 364-374. doi: 10.1007/s12529-013-9297-y Hang, Y., Huijie, L., Jingjin, S., Qinghua, Z., & Weiping, D. (2019). Commonalities and differences in Psychological Adjustment to Chronic Illnesses Among Older Adults: a Comparative Study Based on the Stress and Coping Paradigm. International Journal of Behavioural Medicine. 26(2). 143-153. doi: 10.1007/s12529-019-09773-8 Hjemdal, O., Holen, S., Loevaas, M. E. S., Martinsen, K., Neumer, S. P., Patras, J., Reinfjell, T., & Sund, A. M. (2018). Emotion regulation and its relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression in children aged 8-12 years: does parental gender play a differentiating role? BMC Psychology. 6(42). Kleinert, J., Pils, F., & Schafer, A. (2020). Coping strategies as mediators within the relationship between emotion-regulation and perceived stress in teachers. International Journal of Emotional Education. 12. 35-47. Kutlu, M., Musabak, I., & Tuncay, T. (2008). The relationship between anxiety, coping strategies and characteristics of patients with diabetes. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes. 6(79). doi: 10.1186/1477-7525-6-79 Ong, E., & Thompson, C. (2019). The Importance of Coping and Emotion Regulation in the Occurrence of Suicidal Behaviour. Mental & Physical Health. 122(4). 1192-1210. doi: 10.1177/0033294118781855 Richardson, E. L., & Rolston, A. (2020). What is emotion regulation and how do we do it? Cornell Research Program. Stanislawski, K. (2019). The Coping Circumplex Model: An Integrative Model of the Structure of Coping With Stress. Frontiers in Psychology. 
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg Williams, S. (2018). 6 Keys to the Good Life: #5 Coping Skills. Retrieved on October 19th 2020 from https://serenitymentalhealthcenters.com/6-keys-to-the-good-life-5-coping-skills/ }} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/topics/stress/tips 11 healthy ways to handle life's stressors] (American Psychological Association) * [https://theconversation.com/what-is-emotional-regulation-a-child-psychologist-explains-280443 What is emotional regulation? A child psychologist explains] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] h6ksqrxjqte26v4rjg4u8cylevk7kgh 1 273014 2830375 2826820 2026-09-02T04:13:27Z OhanaUnited 18921 /* applying other join the board */ +1 2830375 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> <div style=" min-height:50px; padding:5px 15px; background-color:#EEEEFF;"> '''This is a page for applications to become an administrative board member for the [[WikiJournal User Group]] ([[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative board|description]]). New applications should be made below.<br>To see open editorial applications across all WikiJournals, see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group/Editors|this page]]'''. </div> {{Archive box|[[/Archive 2021]]}} If you are interested in joining the Administrative Board, please add a short application on this talk page. Briefly describe your relevant experience in administration, organizational work, Wikimedia or other wiki projects, and any particular areas in which you would like to contribute to WikiJournal. {{Clickable button 2 |Apply to the administrative board |url=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:{{PAGENAMEE}}&action=edit&section=new&preload={{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}%2FAdministrative_board%2FApplication&summary=Administrative+board+application |class=mw-ui-progressive }} == applying other join the board == I have been an associate editor for several years now, and attended board meetings regularly, contributing to many discussions and bringing several submissions to publication. I have over 20 years of experience with open science and open access publishing for scientific journals and serve on the editorial board of two other journals currently. I do make contributions to Wikipedia as well, albeit rarely. Michael Heggstrom and Andrew Leung have suggested I apply to join this board. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-46406-96| Alex Holcombe]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-46406-96|talk]]) 23:19, 25 August 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong support'''. I was one of those who recommended that Alex Holcombe apply, and I strongly support him joining the Administrative Board. Alex has already demonstrated sustained commitment to WikiJournal through several years as an associate editor, regular participation in meetings and discussions, and helping bring submissions through to publication. Alex’s extensive experience with open science, open-access publishing, and service on other journal editorial boards would also bring valuable perspective to the Administrative Board. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 18:01, 26 August 2026 (UTC) : '''Strong support'''. Having worked with Alex in numerous submissions, I have strong confidence in his ability. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:13, 2 September 2026 (UTC) abpp7n8fuv6240i9ryn687m3bmqoc6z 118 275977 2830212 2598580 2026-09-01T15:04:43Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints - Please ignore the notification this edit generated. 2830212 wikitext text/x-wiki ----- '''Notice:''' [[Tensors/Transformation rule under a change of basis]] gets about 200 pageviews per month. This draft might need to be moved, or at least linked. ----- [[Linear algebra/Rotation of axes]], [[w:Rotation matrix]], [[w:Rotation of axes]] [[File:Rotation of coordinate unit vectors.svg|thumb|Alternative notation: <math>(x,y)=(x_1,x_2),</math> <math>(x,y)=(x_1^\prime,x^\prime_2),</math> and <math> (\hat x,\hat y)=(\hat e_1,\hat e_2).</math>]] These days most introductory physics textbooks display the position (displacement) vector as: <blockquote><math>\vec r = x\hat i + y\hat j + z\hat k</math></blockquote> This use of seven letters is peculiar in a field where the combined Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets sometimes seems insufficient. Here, we shall replace the [[w:Unit vectors|unit vectors]] <math>\{\hat i, \hat j, ...\}</math> by <math>\{\hat x, \hat y \ldots \}</math>, <math>\{\hat e_1, \hat e_2, \ldots \}</math>, or even simply <math>\hat e_j</math>, where <math>j=\{1,2,3\}</math>. Even though matter exists in three spatial dimensions, one dimension can often be "ignored". The two-dimensional figure shown can also model rotations rotations of a cube or long wire of uniform cross sectino. Two different coordinate systems can be used to represent the point <math>P</math>:<blockquote><math>\underline x = \sum_j x_j\hat e_j=\sum_j x^\prime_j\hat e_j^\prime</math></blockquote>We shall see that <u>underline</u> convention for vectors is also useful for tensors. The unit vectors reminds readers that the coordinate system has been rotated.<ref>See [[wikipedia:Active and passive transformation|w:Active and passive transformation]] [[wikipedia:Special:Permalink/1031428348|(w:Special:Permalink/1031428348]])</ref> ----- [[file:Quizbank SA logo.svg|left|85px]] '''[[Quizbank|Quizbank ideas]]:''' ''Does the value of <math>\underline x</math> change if the index {{math|j}} is changed? Can the figure be applied to a three dimensional object? Why is <math>\underline x^\prime</math> absent from this discussion? Is <math>\hat x\cdot\hat y^\prime</math> positive, negative, or zero? Though it might seem trivial, the following question serves a purpose:'' It is the author's opinion that three dimensional objects should generally be drawn in perspective by displaying the x,y, and z axes (True or False)?<ref>Some schools might want to assign a large number of essays like this for students and require them to correctly answer questions. If I were a student, I would prefer low standards for "passing" so I could guess and also only skim material I find uninteresting. For example, one might require answers to a minimum number of questions with perhaps 75% success rate. </ref> ----- ==Deriving the rotation tensor== The dot product of any vector with a unit vector yields the vector's component in that direction. Pick any value for <math>j</math> and consider the dot product with and vector consider for example the dot product of <math>\underline x</math> with the unit vector <math>\hat e_k</math>: <blockquote><math>\hat e_k\cdot \underline x= \hat e_k\cdot\sum_j x_j\hat e_j = \sum_j \underbrace{(\hat e_k\cdot\hat e_j)}_{\delta_{kj}=\text{0 or 1}}\; x_j= \sum_j x_j\delta_{jk}=x_k,</math></blockquote> where <math>\delta_{jk}</math> is the [[w:Kronecker delta|Kronecker delta]] function.<ref>We need to include permalinks to Wikipedia sites that are essential to understanding this material: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kronecker_delta&oldid=1024474310 </ref><ref>In each step in the above equation, variables were reordered to confirm with Einstein's summation notation. See https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abstract_index_notation&oldid=1020983573</ref> Here we took the dot product with the unprimed unit vector <math>\hat e_k</math>. Something entirely different happens if we instead multiply by the primed unit vector <math>\hat e_k^\prime</math>: <blockquote><math>\hat e_k^\prime\cdot \underline x= \hat e_k^\prime\cdot\sum_j x_j\hat e_j = \sum_j (\hat e_k^\prime\cdot\hat e_j)x_j \;\equiv\; \underline\underline R \cdot \underline x,</math></blockquote>where,<blockquote><math>R_{jk}=\hat e^\prime_k\cdot\hat e_j</math>, <math>\,\left(\text{in dyad notation, } \underline\underline R= \hat e^\prime_k \hat e_j\right)</math> </blockquote> is the rotation tensor. To understand why, note that since <math>\hat e_k^\prime\cdot \underline x=x_k^\prime,</math> we have an expression for the k-th component of <math>\underline x</math> in the primed <math>(x_1^\prime,x_2^\prime\ldots)</math> coordinate system. <blockquote><math> \hat e_k^\prime\cdot \underline x=x_k^\prime \; \Rarr \; \sum_j\hat e_jx^\prime_j = \sum_{j,k}\hat e_jR_{jk}x_k \; \Rarr \; x^\prime_j = \sum_kR_{jk}x_k,</math></blockquote> The latter form can be written as <math>x^\prime_j = R_{jk}x_k</math> if it is [[w:Einstein notation|understood]] that repeated and adjacent subscripts are always summed. ===Rotation in two dimensions=== ==Scratchwork == Our first tensor will of course be the [[w:Rotation matrix|rotation tensor]]: <math>x^\prime_j = \sum_k R_{jk}x_k.</math> To appreciate the value of unit vectors, we calculate the rotation tensor for the two dimensional rotation shown above. Let <math>\underline x</math> be the displacement vector from the origin to point <math>P.</math> <math>\underline x = \sum_j x_j\hat e_j = \sum_j x_j^\prime\hat e_j^\prime,</math> where, for example, <math>x_2^\prime = y^\prime,</math> in the figure above. Interesting results emerge when we take the dot product of this with either <math>\hat e_k</math> or <math>\hat e^\prime_k,</math> because for unit vectors, since we are dealing with unit vectors, the identity, <math>\underline A\cdot \underline B = AB\cos\theta,</math> leads to: <math>\begin{array}{c|c} \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_1^\prime = \cos\theta & \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_2^\prime=-\sin\theta \\ \hline \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_1^\prime= \sin\theta & \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_2^\prime =\cos\theta \end{array}</math> <math>\begin{array}{l|l} \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_1^\prime = \cos\theta \quad & \quad \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_2^\prime=-\sin\theta \\ \hline \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_1^\prime= \sin\theta \quad &\quad \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_2^\prime =\cos\theta \end{array}</math> If find writing this as, <math>\underline x^\prime = \underline\underline R \cdot \underline x,</math> to be simultaneously vague and useful. To understand why, we "derive" the rotation tensor <math>\underline\underline R</math> for the two dimensional graph shown above. Let The great virtue of the unit vector is that it's dot product of any vector with a unit vector reveals a component of that vector. The tensor subscript notation permits us to "vaguely" take the dot product with each unit vector in the rotated reference frame, i.e., with <math>\hat e^\prime_k</math>: (depending on whether <math>j={1,2}</math> or <math>j={1,2,3}</math>.) The <u>underline</u> convention will facilitate the introduction of tensors: == start == <math>\begin{array}{rcl} \underline a\cdot\hat e^\prime_k & = & \sum_j a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ a^\prime_k & =& \sum_j a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ & =& \sum_j (\hat e^\prime_k\cdot\hat e_j) a_j\\ \end{array}</math> <math>\begin{array}{rcl} \underline a\cdot\hat e^\prime_k & = & \sum_j a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ a^\prime_k \quad & =& \sum_j \;a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ a^\prime_{\begin{matrix} k &\\ \downarrow &\\ j \end{matrix}} & =& \sum_{\begin{matrix} j &\\ \downarrow &\\ k \end{matrix}} (\quad\hat e^\prime_{\begin{matrix} k &\\ \downarrow &\\ j \end{matrix}} \cdot\quad\hat e_{\begin{matrix} j &\\ \downarrow &\\ k \end{matrix}} ) \quad a_{\begin{matrix} j &\\ \downarrow &\\ k \end{matrix}} \\ \end{array}</math> [[Category:User:Guy vandegrift/Drafts]] [[Category:Linear algebra|Rotation of axes]] ec8pfe7sh02uz271t3tpzwxtxub4axh 2830213 2830212 2026-09-01T15:09:13Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2830212|2830212]] by [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|talk]]) 2830213 wikitext text/x-wiki ----- '''Notice:''' [[Tensors/Transformation rule under a change of basis]] gets about 200 pageviews per month. This draft might need to be moved, or at least linked. ----- [[Linear algebra/Rotation of axes]], [[w:Rotation matrix]], [[w:Rotation of axes]] [[File:Rotation of coordinate unit vectors.svg|thumb|Alternative notation: <math>(x,y)=(x_1,x_2),</math> <math>(x,y)=(x_1^\prime,x^\prime_2),</math> and <math> (\hat x,\hat y)=(\hat e_1,\hat e_2).</math>]] These days most introductory physics textbooks display the position (displacement) vector as: <blockquote><math>\vec r = x\hat i + y\hat j + z\hat k</math></blockquote> This use of seven letters is peculiar in a field where the combined Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets sometimes seems insufficient. Here, we shall replace the [[w:Unit vectors|unit vectors]] <math>\{\hat i, \hat j, ...\}</math> by <math>\{\hat x, \hat y \ldots \}</math>, <math>\{\hat e_1, \hat e_2, \ldots \}</math>, or even simply <math>\hat e_j</math>, where <math>j=\{1,2,3\}</math>. Even though matter exists in three spatial dimensions, one dimension can often be "ignored". The two-dimensional figure shown can also model rotations rotations of a cube or long wire of uniform cross sectino. Two different coordinate systems can be used to represent the point <math>P</math>:<blockquote><math>\underline x = \sum_j x_j\hat e_j=\sum_j x^\prime_j\hat e_j^\prime</math></blockquote>We shall see that <u>underline</u> convention for vectors is also useful for tensors. The unit vectors reminds readers that the coordinate system has been rotated.<ref>See [[wikipedia:Active and passive transformation|w:Active and passive transformation]] [[wikipedia:Special:Permalink/1031428348|(w:Special:Permalink/1031428348]])</ref> ----- [[file:Quizbank SA logo.svg|left|85px]] '''[[Quizbank|Quizbank ideas]]:''' ''Does the value of <math>\underline x</math> change if the index {{math|j}} is changed? Can the figure be applied to a three dimensional object? Why is <math>\underline x^\prime</math> absent from this discussion? Is <math>\hat x\cdot\hat y^\prime</math> positive, negative, or zero? Though it might seem trivial, the following question serves a purpose:'' It is the author's opinion that three dimensional objects should generally be drawn in perspective by displaying the x,y, and z axes (True or False)?<ref>Some schools might want to assign a large number of essays like this for students and require them to correctly answer questions. If I were a student, I would prefer low standards for "passing" so I could guess and also only skim material I find uninteresting. For example, one might require answers to a minimum number of questions with perhaps 75% success rate. </ref> ----- ==Deriving the rotation tensor== The dot product of any vector with a unit vector yields the vector's component in that direction. Pick any value for <math>j</math> and consider the dot product with and vector consider for example the dot product of <math>\underline x</math> with the unit vector <math>\hat e_k</math>: <blockquote><math>\hat e_k\cdot \underline x= \hat e_k\cdot\sum_j x_j\hat e_j = \sum_j \underbrace{(\hat e_k\cdot\hat e_j)}_{\delta_{kj}=\text{0 or 1}}\; x_j= \sum_j x_j\delta_{jk}=x_k,</math></blockquote> where <math>\delta_{jk}</math> is the [[w:Kronecker delta|Kronecker delta]] function.<ref>We need to include permalinks to Wikipedia sites that are essential to understanding this material: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kronecker_delta&oldid=1024474310 </ref><ref>In each step in the above equation, variables were reordered to confirm with Einstein's summation notation. See https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abstract_index_notation&oldid=1020983573</ref> Here we took the dot product with the unprimed unit vector <math>\hat e_k</math>. Something entirely different happens if we instead multiply by the primed unit vector <math>\hat e_k^\prime</math>: <blockquote><math>\hat e_k^\prime\cdot \underline x= \hat e_k^\prime\cdot\sum_j x_j\hat e_j = \sum_j (\hat e_k^\prime\cdot\hat e_j)x_j \;\equiv\; \underline\underline R \cdot \underline x,</math></blockquote>where,<blockquote><math>R_{jk}=\hat e^\prime_k\cdot\hat e_j</math>, <math>\,\left(\text{in dyad notation, } \underline\underline R= \hat e^\prime_k \hat e_j\right)</math> </blockquote> is the rotation tensor. To understand why, note that since <math>\hat e_k^\prime\cdot \underline x=x_k^\prime,</math> we have an expression for the k-th component of <math>\underline x</math> in the primed <math>(x_1^\prime,x_2^\prime\ldots)</math> coordinate system. <blockquote><math> \hat e_k^\prime\cdot \underline x=x_k^\prime \; \Rarr \; \sum_j\hat e_jx^\prime_j = \sum_{j,k}\hat e_jR_{jk}x_k \; \Rarr \; x^\prime_j = \sum_kR_{jk}x_k,</math></blockquote> The latter form can be written as <math>x^\prime_j = R_{jk}x_k</math> if it is [[w:Einstein notation|understood]] that repeated and adjacent subscripts are always summed. ===Rotation in two dimensions=== ==Scratchwork == Our first tensor will of course be the [[w:Rotation matrix|rotation tensor]]: <math>x^\prime_j = \sum_k R_{jk}x_k.</math> To appreciate the value of unit vectors, we calculate the rotation tensor for the two dimensional rotation shown above. Let <math>\underline x</math> be the displacement vector from the origin to point <math>P.</math> <math>\underline x = \sum_j x_j\hat e_j = \sum_j x_j^\prime\hat e_j^\prime,</math> where, for example, <math>x_2^\prime = y^\prime,</math> in the figure above. Interesting results emerge when we take the dot product of this with either <math>\hat e_k</math> or <math>\hat e^\prime_k,</math> because for unit vectors, <math since="" we="" are="" dealing="" with="" unit="" vectors,="" the="" identity,="" <math>\underline A\cdot \underline B = AB\cos\theta,</math> leads to: <math>\begin{array}{c|c} \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_1^\prime = \cos\theta & \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_2^\prime=-\sin\theta \\ \hline \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_1^\prime= \sin\theta & \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_2^\prime =\cos\theta \end{array}</math> <math>\begin{array}{l|l} \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_1^\prime = \cos\theta \quad & \quad \hat e_1\cdot\hat e_2^\prime=-\sin\theta \\ \hline \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_1^\prime= \sin\theta \quad &\quad \hat e_2\cdot\hat e_2^\prime =\cos\theta \end{array}</math> If find writing this as, <math>\underline x^\prime = \underline\underline R \cdot \underline x,</math> to be simultaneously vague and useful. To understand why, we "derive" the rotation tensor <math>\underline\underline R</math> for the two dimensional graph shown above. Let The great virtue of the unit vector is that it's dot product of any vector with a unit vector reveals a component of that vector. The tensor subscript notation permits us to "vaguely" take the dot product with each unit vector in the rotated reference frame, i.e., with <math>\hat e^\prime_k</math>: (depending on whether <math>j={1,2}</math> or <math>j={1,2,3}</math>.) The <u>underline</u> convention will facilitate the introduction of tensors: == start == <math>\begin{array}{rcl} \underline a\cdot\hat e^\prime_k & = & \sum_j a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ a^\prime_k & =& \sum_j a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ & =& \sum_j (\hat e^\prime_k\cdot\hat e_j) a_j\\ \end{array}</math> <math>\begin{array}{rcl} \underline a\cdot\hat e^\prime_k & = & \sum_j a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ a^\prime_k \quad & =& \sum_j \;a_j\hat e_j\cdot\hat e^\prime_k \\ a^\prime_{\begin{matrix} k &\\ \downarrow &\\ j \end{matrix}} & =& \sum_{\begin{matrix} j &\\ \downarrow &\\ k \end{matrix}} (\quad\hat e^\prime_{\begin{matrix} k &\\ \downarrow &\\ j \end{matrix}} \cdot\quad\hat e_{\begin{matrix} j &\\ \downarrow &\\ k \end{matrix}} ) \quad a_{\begin{matrix} j &\\ \downarrow &\\ k \end{matrix}} \\ \end{array}</math> [[Category:User:Guy vandegrift/Drafts]] [[Category:Linear algebra|Rotation of axes]] pddxaar3avejimbes53xrhsxp22au85 0 285908 2830294 2808016 2026-09-01T21:05:39Z Dronebogus 3054149 /* Overview */ there is no such thing as an expression of “disappointment” different from sadness 2830294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment:<br>What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/BVUPkwnCYao}} __TOC__ ==Overview== <blockquote>Have you ever worked hard toward a goal and yet failed to achieve it? Have you ever been let down by someone? Have you ever made plans that fell apart at the last minute? Have you ever felt that your effort was not recognised or rewarded?</blockquote>If yes, you likely experienced '''disappointment''' (see Figure 1). Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]] (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). Such emotions help us in our everyday lives (Izard, 2010); they motivate us to cope, communicate, and [[wiktionary:adapt|adapt]] to the world around us (Izard, 2010). Although there is no official definition for the word "emotion" (Mulligan & Scherer, 2012), emotions also involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression (Izard, 2010). This chapter describes the psychology of disappointment, explores the causes of disappointment, and discusses what can be done to manage disappointment. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Focus questions''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== [[File:Centreville High School (Virginia) 1998 · DD-SP-99-04111.JPEG|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A [[w:American football|American football]] player comforts a disappointed teammate after a loss.]] Disappointment is an emotion that occurs when someone compares an actual outcome to the perceived better outcome that did not occur, or when one's expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a, b). In the context of disappointment, outcomes could be anything, for example, a friend forgetting to do the task you asked them to do, receiving a lower mark on an assignment than you expected, or listening to the new album of your favourite artist and discovering that you don't like any of the songs. Disappointment is all about expectations, and reflecting on what ''could'' have happened (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, b) (see Figure 2). Disappointment is a decision-making emotion and has historically been researched using forced choice tasks, where participants are forced to choose between two options, or asking participants to recall moments when they have experienced disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a; see [[The Regret and Disappointment Scale|the regret and disappointment scale]] for a way to measure disappointment). Researchers generally use choice tasks when researching how disappointment works and various aspects of disappointment, and recall tasks are generally used to define or gain insight on everyday disappointment. One downside to researching disappointment in this way is that disappointment has been shown to increase in forced choice tasks (Matarazzo et al., 2021). However, Matarazzo et al. (2021) found that the thinking, action tendencies, and feelings of disappointment in forced choice tasks are possibly due to the nature of forced choice tasks. [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. The facial expression of [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] may be misunderstood as disappointment. Disappointment arises from unmet expectations, whereas sadness is a response to loss.]] Like [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]] or [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]], disappointment is a cognitively complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017). Disappointment typically involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999). In some cases, disappointment can look like [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]], [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] (see Figure 3), [[wikipedia:Embarrassment|embarrassment]], or [[wikipedia:Extraversion_and_introversion|introversion]]; as the disappointed individual may withdraw from social situations, feel as if they have experienced a loss, try to avoid similar situations, or not want to participate in general. Disappointment can be paralysing, especially experiencing a string of disappointing events back-to-back, however, people are less likely to hold on to their disappointment and are more likely to move on from the experience in a relatively short amount of time (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, b). See Table 1 for examples of emotions similar to disappointment. Table 1 ''Emotions Similar to Disappointment'' {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:100%;" |- | style="width:10%;" | '''Emotion''' | style="width:90%;" | '''Definition''' |- |[[w:Regret|Regret]] |A cognitively complex negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a, p.222). |- |[[w:Anger|Anger]] |A simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al.,1999). |- |[[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] |A complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. |} {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight: The history of disappointment}} The history of disappointment research begins with regret. Many researchers, including David Bell, [[wikipedia:Graham_Loomes|Graham Loomes]], and [[wikipedia:Robert_Sugden_(economist)|Robert Sugden]], were exploring decision making under uncertainty and the emotions that accompany these decisions. After simultaneously publishing their regret theories in 1982, Bell (1985), and Loomes and Sugden (1986) developed their theories of disappointment. A key assumption these theories make is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 1998b, 2000). According to Bell (1985), disappointment "is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations" (p. 1). Bell (1985) believed that perceived disappointment changes the desirability of the outcome and influences how people will act. According to Loomes and Sugden (1986), "when considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation'' ... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment" (p.271). Loomes and Sugden (1986) have acknowledged that they share the same basic intuition about disappointment as Bell (1985). {{Robelbox/close}} === Types of disappointment === There are two widely recognised types of disappointment. These are outcome-related disappointment [ORD] and person-related disappointment [PRD] (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). ORD occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome does not occur (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). This type of disappointment is often researched using forced choice tasks. People who experience ORD may feel [[wiktionary:hopeless|hopeless]] or empty, want a second chance, or try harder to change the outcome next time (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). PRD occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to another person (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). This type of disappointment is not often focused upon, however, it is probably the most commonly experienced type. People who experience PRD may feel abandoned or distanced from the other person, disapprove of them, and ignore or avoid them (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). One important consideration is that van Dijk and Zeelenberg (2002) assume that PRD is cause by another person, however, one can be disappointed in themselves. While there has not been research into dimensions of PRD, it would be useful to refine the idea of PRD or research self-disappointment and determine if it should be included in PRD or if it should be considered self-related disappointment. === Test yourself === <quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + PRD - ORD {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - PRD + ORD </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == [[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4.''' Brain image highlighting the posterior, mid, and anterior insula.]] Disappointment is caused by thoughts and [[wikipedia:Cognition|mental processes]] that originate in the [[wikipedia:Cerebral_cortex|cerebral cortex]]. Multiple brain regions have been shown to be active during disappointment or to contribute to the process of disappointment, namely the [[wikipedia:Insular_cortex|insula]] (see Figure 4), and various regions of the [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] (see Figure 5) (Chua et al., 2009; Kalat, 2019; Mohr et al., 2010). Due to the complexity of disappointment, some brain regions work together to produce disappointment. === Insula === The insula is the brain region responsible for knowing what actions are caused by the self and what actions are not, as well as learning and processing risk and uncertainty (Farrer & Frith, 2002). The [[wikipedia:Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior|anterior]] insula monitors, evaluates, and consciously represents emotions and feelings that arise from bodily states monitored by the [[wikipedia:Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior\|posterior]] insula, including risk (Craig, 2009). When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula becomes active (Chua et al., 2009; Mohr et al., 2010); it is also active in the presence of potential loss (Mohr et al., 2010). This could be because individuals can predict that they will feel disappointed if loss was to occur. === Prefrontal cortex === [[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 5.'' Brain image highlighting the prefrontal cortex (PFC).]] The prefrontal cortex [PFC] is a large section of the brain that is involved various processes, including decision making, working memory, emotional reactions, and movement (Kalat, 2019). It has been shown that the anterior regions of the PFC are responsible for decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, and determining the probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019). This is why [[wikipedia:Lateralization_of_brain_function|hemispherical differences]], the [[wikipedia:Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex|ventromedial PFC]] (see Figure 6), [[wikipedia:Orbitofrontal_cortex|orbitofrontal cortex]] (see Figure 5), and [[wikipedia:Dorsomedial_prefrontal_cortex|dorsomedial PFC]] (see Figure 6) are considered to be contributing factors to the experience of disappointment (Chua et al., 2009; Davidson, 2004; Kalat, 2019). ==== Hemispherical differences ==== The right PFC is sensitive to punishment and controls impulsive behaviour, and the left is associated with coping, resilience, and psychological wellbeing (Davidson, 2004). When an individual experiences damage to their right PFC, cues that would normally signal danger are no longer received and the individual acts impulsively (Davidson, 2004). Therefore, when an individual encounters a risky or potentially disappointing situation, the right PFC activates and sends a "no-go" message to avoid the situation and perceived disappointment. ==== Ventromedial prefrontal cortex ==== [[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC).]] The ventromedial PFC [VMPFC] learns what choices are beneficial and what choices are not, adjusting decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). The VMPFC also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). As the VMPFC is connected to the insula, it is able to attach emotions to choices and other stimuli that is being considered (Craig, 2009). For example, if you feel confident that you have made the right decision and will achieve a good outcome, you will feel more disappointed than you would have felt if you were less confident that you will achieve a good outcome. Damage to the VMPFC has been shown to cause impairments in the ability to make considered decisions. Individuals with VMPFC damage tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019). This can lead to constant or [[wiktionary:chronic|chronic]] disappointment as the VMPFC cannot adjust decision making based on previous experience. Below is an example of how the VMPFC works. {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study|width=1000px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You are playing [[w:Uno|Uno]]. You have 5 cards to play, and so do your four opponents. You only have number cards, and based off of the cards that have already been played, your opponents must have at least one draw 4 card. You strategically match the number that was last played so that you change the colour of the deck; this makes it more likely that a draw 4 card will be played after your turn, and not used on you. If the draw 4 card is used on you, you will feel more disappointed as your strategy did not work. If the draw 4 card is not used on you, you will feel good about your strategy and continue to use it in the future. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} ==== Orbitofrontal cortex ==== [[File:MRI of orbitofrontal cortex.jpg|alt=Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted on brain MRI|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' Approximate location of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) on an MRI.]] The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (see Figure 7) responds to information from the VMPFC. It is the part of the brain that changes and updates expected outcomes of our actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019). The OFC actively differentiates between 'disappointing' (not good) and 'not disappointing' (good) options or outcomes, and chooses the option that is most likely to lead to a 'not disappointing' outcome (O'Doherty, 2004). Damage or inactivity of the OFC is associated with impulsive and otherwise poor decision making, leading to disappointing outcomes (Kalat, 2019). Below is an example of how the OFC decides what to do. {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study|width=1000px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You decide to go to 54 Benjamin for breakfast. When you arrive, you remember that the last time you went there you didn't like the drink you ordered. You also remember that when you were there your friend ordered a drink that you liked the look of, and your friend said it was quite good. This time you order what your friend had last time and you are not disappointed. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} ==== Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex ==== The dorsomedial PFC [DMPFC] plays a role in both cognition and emotion (Eickhoff et al., 2016). The DMPFC is responsible for anticipating rewards, monitoring performance, selecting actions, and signalling errors and [[wiktionary:adverse|adverse]] outcomes (Taren et al., 2011); and is activated when individuals experience disappointment (Chua et al., 2009). The DMPFC regulates responses to unpredictable negative [[w:Stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] and regulates [[wiktionary:reappraisal|reappraisal]] and [[wikipedia:Distraction|distraction]] (Helion et al., 2019). Once an emotion is identified, the DMPFC shapes the intensity of the emotion based on the individual's goals (Helion, Krueger, & Ochsner, 2019). The more invested or important the outcome is, and the more adverse the opposite outcome is, the more disappointment is experienced. Below is an example of how the DMPFC works. {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Your assignment is finally graded and you receive a lower grade than you expected. You feel disappointed in yourself for achieving a lower grade than usual. However, your disappointment starts to disappear when you think about how important the class is to you. You know that it is important to do well, but this particular class is a major, not a core class, so you know that as long as you pass the class you are doing well. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} === Test yourself === <quiz display="simple"> {Which brain region monitors who causes what action? |type="()"} + Insula - OFC {Which brain region modifies emotion intensity? |type="()"} - PFC + DMPFC {Damage to which brain region causes people to confidently make poor decisions? |type="()"} - OFC + VMPFC </quiz> ==How can disappointment be managed?== After learning about the mental processes that contribute to disappointment, it may feel as if disappointment is inevitable. After all, if you were to take a minute to think of the last time you felt disappointed, you would probably be able to think of an event that occurred in the last month. Because disappointment is so unpleasant, researchers have found different ways to manage disappointment. The main three strategies to manage disappointment are lowering expectations, living up to expectations, and avoiding risk-taking (van Dijk et al., 2003; Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, 2000). But should disappointment be managed? === Lowering expectations === When an unfavourable outcome occurs, so does disappointment. One way to combat disappointment is to lower expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). In general, people tend to lower their expectations when feedback or the outcome is anticipated in the near future. For example, as a patient gets closer to their surgery, their expectations of a positive outcome could reduce until the patient no longer wants surgery (van Dijk et al., 2003). de Meza and Dawson (2021) have found that people with mistaken expectations or unrealistic expectations (i.e., unrealistic optimism) experience lower levels of [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]]. In the long-run, realists (people who have a realistic world view) have significantly higher wellbeing than both [[wikipedia:Pessimism|pessimists]] and [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimists]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021). Overall, lowering expectations leads to a lower chance of experiencing disappointment, however, it is important to keep in mind that this can lower your overall wellbeing if you gain a pessimistic outlook (de Meza & Dawson, 2021; van Dijk et al., 2003). === Living up to expectations === Disappointment, like many other emotions, can be anticipated. If disappointment is anticipated, people attempt to avoid it by living up to expectations (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). In this instance, disappointment is a motivator, either to decrease the likelihood of disappointment, or to increase the likelihood of a desired outcome (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). To live up to expectations, the amount of effort that an individual puts in must be able to increase the likelihood of a good outcome. Therefore, this method is only useful when an individual's effort is able to decrease the probability of disappointment and is only appropriate when effort or something controlled by the individual can lead to obtaining the desired outcome (van Dijk et al., 2003). For example, extra study and preparation can result in a better chance at passing a test which would decrease disappointment, but extra time studying a dice will not result in a better chance at predicting which number it will land on. === Avoid risk-taking === A more proactive approach to managing disappointment is avoiding it. Choosing safe alternatives that lead to known outcomes do not risk disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, b, 2000). This approach could be called [[wikipedia:Risk_aversion|risk aversion]] (Zeleenberg et al., 1998b, 2000). Below is an example of how risk-taking can be avoided, however, disappointment is not always avoidable. This begs the question, should disappointment be managed or avoided? {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You are picking ice cream at a new restaurant and you have three options, vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry. You like all three options, however, you find that some chocolate ice creams are disgusting, and you only like specific strawberry ice creams. Vanilla is not your favourite flavour but you find it edible even if you do not completely like it. You pick the vanilla ice cream. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} === Should disappointment be managed? === Disappointment helps us improve our circumstances, improve ourselves, and alerts us to our own expectations and from this we readjust our expectations or adapt to avoid similar disappointing experiences in the future. For example, if someone continually disappoints us we then decide to distance ourselves from that person, or if we are disappointed in the feedback we receive we then work to achieve an acceptable standard, and if we travel with a specific company and their service is disappointing the next time we travel we will most likely try a different company. If disappointment is interpreted as a message that needs to be heard and acted upon, then disappointment occurs less and is perceived as less detrimental (Grainger, 1991). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Questions to consider:''' * What do you think about disappointment? * Is disappointment good or bad? Why? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Disappointment is a cognitively complex emotion that occurs when your expectations are not met (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a). Whether you experience ORD or PRD, the insula, VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC work together to choose the most beneficial choice, determine how likely the beneficial option is, and signal when adverse outcomes occur (Craig, 2009; Kalat, 2019; Taren et al., 2011). Sometimes disappointment is unexpected, however, when it is anticipated, techniques such as lowering expectations, living up to expectations, and avoiding risk-taking are effective in reducing disappointment (van Dijk et al., 2003; Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, 2000). Although disappointment is a negative emotion, it helps us to adapt, avoid negative outcomes, and improve ourselves (Grainger, 1991). Overall, successfully managing expectations is a difficult task, but when done well, reduces disappointment. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2022) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 Chua, H. F., Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., & Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 Craig, A. D. (2009). How do you feel - now? The anterior insula and human awareness. ''Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 10''(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2555 Davidson, R. J. (2004). What does the prefrontal cortex “do” in affect: Perspectives on frontal EEG asymmetry research. ''Biological Psychology, 67''(1), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.008 de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Fox, P. T., Bzdok, D., & Hensel, L. (2016). Functional segregation of the human dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. ''Cerebral Cortex, 26''(1), 304-321. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhu250 Farrer, C., & Frith, C. D. (2002). Experiencing oneself vs another person as being the cause of an action: The neural correlates of the experience of agency. ''NeuroImage, 15''(3), 596–603. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.1009 Grainger, R. D. (1991). Dealing with feelings: The disguise of disappointment. ''The American Journal of Nursing, 91''(11), Article 10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3426784 Helion, C., Krueger, S. M., & Ochsner, K. N. (2019). Emotion regulation across the lifespan. In D’Esposito, M., & Grafman, J. H. (Eds.), ''Handbook of clinical neurology'' (pp.257-280). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804281-6.00014-8. Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Cengage Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Loomes, G., & Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Matarazzo, O., Abbamonte, L., Greco, C., Pizzini, B., & Nigro, G. (2021). Regret and other emotions related to decision-making: Antecedents, appraisals, and phenomenological aspects. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', Article 783248. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.783248 Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., & Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010 Mulligan, K., & Scherer, K. R. (2012). Toward a working definition of emotion. ''Emotion Review, 4''(4), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445818 O’Doherty, J. P. (2004). Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging. ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14''(6), 769–776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.10.016 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', Article 1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Taren, A. A., Venkatraman, V., & Huettel, S. A. (2011). A parallel functional topography between medial and lateral prefrontal cortex: Evidence and implications for cognitive control. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 31''(13), 5026–5031. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5762-10.2011 van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. R., van Empelen, P., & Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube) * [https://mensline.org.au/how-to-deal-with-anger/how-to-deal-with-disappointment/ How to deal with disappointment] (MensLine.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_gilbert_why_we_make_bad_decisions Why we make bad decisions] (TED.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0gks6ceq4eQ You aren't at the mercy of your emotions -- your brain creates them | Lisa Feldman Barrett] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}/Top]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disappointment]] rorlz2rlhu3jjff2atg200fw5kkuo0o 2830295 2830294 2026-09-01T21:05:56Z Dronebogus 3054149 /* What is disappointment? */ ditto 2830295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment:<br>What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/BVUPkwnCYao}} __TOC__ ==Overview== <blockquote>Have you ever worked hard toward a goal and yet failed to achieve it? Have you ever been let down by someone? Have you ever made plans that fell apart at the last minute? Have you ever felt that your effort was not recognised or rewarded?</blockquote>If yes, you likely experienced '''disappointment''' (see Figure 1). Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]] (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). Such emotions help us in our everyday lives (Izard, 2010); they motivate us to cope, communicate, and [[wiktionary:adapt|adapt]] to the world around us (Izard, 2010). Although there is no official definition for the word "emotion" (Mulligan & Scherer, 2012), emotions also involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression (Izard, 2010). This chapter describes the psychology of disappointment, explores the causes of disappointment, and discusses what can be done to manage disappointment. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Focus questions''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== [[File:Centreville High School (Virginia) 1998 · DD-SP-99-04111.JPEG|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A [[w:American football|American football]] player comforts a disappointed teammate after a loss.]] Disappointment is an emotion that occurs when someone compares an actual outcome to the perceived better outcome that did not occur, or when one's expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a, b). In the context of disappointment, outcomes could be anything, for example, a friend forgetting to do the task you asked them to do, receiving a lower mark on an assignment than you expected, or listening to the new album of your favourite artist and discovering that you don't like any of the songs. Disappointment is all about expectations, and reflecting on what ''could'' have happened (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, b) (see Figure 2). Disappointment is a decision-making emotion and has historically been researched using forced choice tasks, where participants are forced to choose between two options, or asking participants to recall moments when they have experienced disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a; see [[The Regret and Disappointment Scale|the regret and disappointment scale]] for a way to measure disappointment). Researchers generally use choice tasks when researching how disappointment works and various aspects of disappointment, and recall tasks are generally used to define or gain insight on everyday disappointment. One downside to researching disappointment in this way is that disappointment has been shown to increase in forced choice tasks (Matarazzo et al., 2021). However, Matarazzo et al. (2021) found that the thinking, action tendencies, and feelings of disappointment in forced choice tasks are possibly due to the nature of forced choice tasks. Like [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]] or [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]], disappointment is a cognitively complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017). Disappointment typically involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999). In some cases, disappointment can look like [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]], [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] (see Figure 3), [[wikipedia:Embarrassment|embarrassment]], or [[wikipedia:Extraversion_and_introversion|introversion]]; as the disappointed individual may withdraw from social situations, feel as if they have experienced a loss, try to avoid similar situations, or not want to participate in general. Disappointment can be paralysing, especially experiencing a string of disappointing events back-to-back, however, people are less likely to hold on to their disappointment and are more likely to move on from the experience in a relatively short amount of time (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, b). See Table 1 for examples of emotions similar to disappointment. Table 1 ''Emotions Similar to Disappointment'' {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:100%;" |- | style="width:10%;" | '''Emotion''' | style="width:90%;" | '''Definition''' |- |[[w:Regret|Regret]] |A cognitively complex negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a, p.222). |- |[[w:Anger|Anger]] |A simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al.,1999). |- |[[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] |A complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. |} {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight: The history of disappointment}} The history of disappointment research begins with regret. Many researchers, including David Bell, [[wikipedia:Graham_Loomes|Graham Loomes]], and [[wikipedia:Robert_Sugden_(economist)|Robert Sugden]], were exploring decision making under uncertainty and the emotions that accompany these decisions. After simultaneously publishing their regret theories in 1982, Bell (1985), and Loomes and Sugden (1986) developed their theories of disappointment. A key assumption these theories make is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 1998b, 2000). According to Bell (1985), disappointment "is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations" (p. 1). Bell (1985) believed that perceived disappointment changes the desirability of the outcome and influences how people will act. According to Loomes and Sugden (1986), "when considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation'' ... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment" (p.271). Loomes and Sugden (1986) have acknowledged that they share the same basic intuition about disappointment as Bell (1985). {{Robelbox/close}} === Types of disappointment === There are two widely recognised types of disappointment. These are outcome-related disappointment [ORD] and person-related disappointment [PRD] (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). ORD occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome does not occur (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). This type of disappointment is often researched using forced choice tasks. People who experience ORD may feel [[wiktionary:hopeless|hopeless]] or empty, want a second chance, or try harder to change the outcome next time (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). PRD occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to another person (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). This type of disappointment is not often focused upon, however, it is probably the most commonly experienced type. People who experience PRD may feel abandoned or distanced from the other person, disapprove of them, and ignore or avoid them (van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). One important consideration is that van Dijk and Zeelenberg (2002) assume that PRD is cause by another person, however, one can be disappointed in themselves. While there has not been research into dimensions of PRD, it would be useful to refine the idea of PRD or research self-disappointment and determine if it should be included in PRD or if it should be considered self-related disappointment. === Test yourself === <quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + PRD - ORD {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - PRD + ORD </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == [[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4.''' Brain image highlighting the posterior, mid, and anterior insula.]] Disappointment is caused by thoughts and [[wikipedia:Cognition|mental processes]] that originate in the [[wikipedia:Cerebral_cortex|cerebral cortex]]. Multiple brain regions have been shown to be active during disappointment or to contribute to the process of disappointment, namely the [[wikipedia:Insular_cortex|insula]] (see Figure 4), and various regions of the [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] (see Figure 5) (Chua et al., 2009; Kalat, 2019; Mohr et al., 2010). Due to the complexity of disappointment, some brain regions work together to produce disappointment. === Insula === The insula is the brain region responsible for knowing what actions are caused by the self and what actions are not, as well as learning and processing risk and uncertainty (Farrer & Frith, 2002). The [[wikipedia:Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior|anterior]] insula monitors, evaluates, and consciously represents emotions and feelings that arise from bodily states monitored by the [[wikipedia:Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior\|posterior]] insula, including risk (Craig, 2009). When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula becomes active (Chua et al., 2009; Mohr et al., 2010); it is also active in the presence of potential loss (Mohr et al., 2010). This could be because individuals can predict that they will feel disappointed if loss was to occur. === Prefrontal cortex === [[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 5.'' Brain image highlighting the prefrontal cortex (PFC).]] The prefrontal cortex [PFC] is a large section of the brain that is involved various processes, including decision making, working memory, emotional reactions, and movement (Kalat, 2019). It has been shown that the anterior regions of the PFC are responsible for decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, and determining the probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019). This is why [[wikipedia:Lateralization_of_brain_function|hemispherical differences]], the [[wikipedia:Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex|ventromedial PFC]] (see Figure 6), [[wikipedia:Orbitofrontal_cortex|orbitofrontal cortex]] (see Figure 5), and [[wikipedia:Dorsomedial_prefrontal_cortex|dorsomedial PFC]] (see Figure 6) are considered to be contributing factors to the experience of disappointment (Chua et al., 2009; Davidson, 2004; Kalat, 2019). ==== Hemispherical differences ==== The right PFC is sensitive to punishment and controls impulsive behaviour, and the left is associated with coping, resilience, and psychological wellbeing (Davidson, 2004). When an individual experiences damage to their right PFC, cues that would normally signal danger are no longer received and the individual acts impulsively (Davidson, 2004). Therefore, when an individual encounters a risky or potentially disappointing situation, the right PFC activates and sends a "no-go" message to avoid the situation and perceived disappointment. ==== Ventromedial prefrontal cortex ==== [[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC).]] The ventromedial PFC [VMPFC] learns what choices are beneficial and what choices are not, adjusting decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). The VMPFC also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). As the VMPFC is connected to the insula, it is able to attach emotions to choices and other stimuli that is being considered (Craig, 2009). For example, if you feel confident that you have made the right decision and will achieve a good outcome, you will feel more disappointed than you would have felt if you were less confident that you will achieve a good outcome. Damage to the VMPFC has been shown to cause impairments in the ability to make considered decisions. Individuals with VMPFC damage tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019). This can lead to constant or [[wiktionary:chronic|chronic]] disappointment as the VMPFC cannot adjust decision making based on previous experience. Below is an example of how the VMPFC works. {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study|width=1000px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You are playing [[w:Uno|Uno]]. You have 5 cards to play, and so do your four opponents. You only have number cards, and based off of the cards that have already been played, your opponents must have at least one draw 4 card. You strategically match the number that was last played so that you change the colour of the deck; this makes it more likely that a draw 4 card will be played after your turn, and not used on you. If the draw 4 card is used on you, you will feel more disappointed as your strategy did not work. If the draw 4 card is not used on you, you will feel good about your strategy and continue to use it in the future. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} ==== Orbitofrontal cortex ==== [[File:MRI of orbitofrontal cortex.jpg|alt=Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted on brain MRI|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' Approximate location of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) on an MRI.]] The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (see Figure 7) responds to information from the VMPFC. It is the part of the brain that changes and updates expected outcomes of our actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019). The OFC actively differentiates between 'disappointing' (not good) and 'not disappointing' (good) options or outcomes, and chooses the option that is most likely to lead to a 'not disappointing' outcome (O'Doherty, 2004). Damage or inactivity of the OFC is associated with impulsive and otherwise poor decision making, leading to disappointing outcomes (Kalat, 2019). Below is an example of how the OFC decides what to do. {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study|width=1000px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You decide to go to 54 Benjamin for breakfast. When you arrive, you remember that the last time you went there you didn't like the drink you ordered. You also remember that when you were there your friend ordered a drink that you liked the look of, and your friend said it was quite good. This time you order what your friend had last time and you are not disappointed. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} ==== Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex ==== The dorsomedial PFC [DMPFC] plays a role in both cognition and emotion (Eickhoff et al., 2016). The DMPFC is responsible for anticipating rewards, monitoring performance, selecting actions, and signalling errors and [[wiktionary:adverse|adverse]] outcomes (Taren et al., 2011); and is activated when individuals experience disappointment (Chua et al., 2009). The DMPFC regulates responses to unpredictable negative [[w:Stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] and regulates [[wiktionary:reappraisal|reappraisal]] and [[wikipedia:Distraction|distraction]] (Helion et al., 2019). Once an emotion is identified, the DMPFC shapes the intensity of the emotion based on the individual's goals (Helion, Krueger, & Ochsner, 2019). The more invested or important the outcome is, and the more adverse the opposite outcome is, the more disappointment is experienced. Below is an example of how the DMPFC works. {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Your assignment is finally graded and you receive a lower grade than you expected. You feel disappointed in yourself for achieving a lower grade than usual. However, your disappointment starts to disappear when you think about how important the class is to you. You know that it is important to do well, but this particular class is a major, not a core class, so you know that as long as you pass the class you are doing well. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} === Test yourself === <quiz display="simple"> {Which brain region monitors who causes what action? |type="()"} + Insula - OFC {Which brain region modifies emotion intensity? |type="()"} - PFC + DMPFC {Damage to which brain region causes people to confidently make poor decisions? |type="()"} - OFC + VMPFC </quiz> ==How can disappointment be managed?== After learning about the mental processes that contribute to disappointment, it may feel as if disappointment is inevitable. After all, if you were to take a minute to think of the last time you felt disappointed, you would probably be able to think of an event that occurred in the last month. Because disappointment is so unpleasant, researchers have found different ways to manage disappointment. The main three strategies to manage disappointment are lowering expectations, living up to expectations, and avoiding risk-taking (van Dijk et al., 2003; Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, 2000). But should disappointment be managed? === Lowering expectations === When an unfavourable outcome occurs, so does disappointment. One way to combat disappointment is to lower expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). In general, people tend to lower their expectations when feedback or the outcome is anticipated in the near future. For example, as a patient gets closer to their surgery, their expectations of a positive outcome could reduce until the patient no longer wants surgery (van Dijk et al., 2003). de Meza and Dawson (2021) have found that people with mistaken expectations or unrealistic expectations (i.e., unrealistic optimism) experience lower levels of [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]]. In the long-run, realists (people who have a realistic world view) have significantly higher wellbeing than both [[wikipedia:Pessimism|pessimists]] and [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimists]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021). Overall, lowering expectations leads to a lower chance of experiencing disappointment, however, it is important to keep in mind that this can lower your overall wellbeing if you gain a pessimistic outlook (de Meza & Dawson, 2021; van Dijk et al., 2003). === Living up to expectations === Disappointment, like many other emotions, can be anticipated. If disappointment is anticipated, people attempt to avoid it by living up to expectations (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). In this instance, disappointment is a motivator, either to decrease the likelihood of disappointment, or to increase the likelihood of a desired outcome (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). To live up to expectations, the amount of effort that an individual puts in must be able to increase the likelihood of a good outcome. Therefore, this method is only useful when an individual's effort is able to decrease the probability of disappointment and is only appropriate when effort or something controlled by the individual can lead to obtaining the desired outcome (van Dijk et al., 2003). For example, extra study and preparation can result in a better chance at passing a test which would decrease disappointment, but extra time studying a dice will not result in a better chance at predicting which number it will land on. === Avoid risk-taking === A more proactive approach to managing disappointment is avoiding it. Choosing safe alternatives that lead to known outcomes do not risk disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, b, 2000). This approach could be called [[wikipedia:Risk_aversion|risk aversion]] (Zeleenberg et al., 1998b, 2000). Below is an example of how risk-taking can be avoided, however, disappointment is not always avoidable. This begs the question, should disappointment be managed or avoided? {{Robelbox|theme=6|title= Case study}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You are picking ice cream at a new restaurant and you have three options, vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry. You like all three options, however, you find that some chocolate ice creams are disgusting, and you only like specific strawberry ice creams. Vanilla is not your favourite flavour but you find it edible even if you do not completely like it. You pick the vanilla ice cream. </div> {{Robelbox-close}} === Should disappointment be managed? === Disappointment helps us improve our circumstances, improve ourselves, and alerts us to our own expectations and from this we readjust our expectations or adapt to avoid similar disappointing experiences in the future. For example, if someone continually disappoints us we then decide to distance ourselves from that person, or if we are disappointed in the feedback we receive we then work to achieve an acceptable standard, and if we travel with a specific company and their service is disappointing the next time we travel we will most likely try a different company. If disappointment is interpreted as a message that needs to be heard and acted upon, then disappointment occurs less and is perceived as less detrimental (Grainger, 1991). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Questions to consider:''' * What do you think about disappointment? * Is disappointment good or bad? Why? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Disappointment is a cognitively complex emotion that occurs when your expectations are not met (Zeleenberg et al., 1998a). Whether you experience ORD or PRD, the insula, VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC work together to choose the most beneficial choice, determine how likely the beneficial option is, and signal when adverse outcomes occur (Craig, 2009; Kalat, 2019; Taren et al., 2011). Sometimes disappointment is unexpected, however, when it is anticipated, techniques such as lowering expectations, living up to expectations, and avoiding risk-taking are effective in reducing disappointment (van Dijk et al., 2003; Zeleenberg et al., 1998a, 2000). Although disappointment is a negative emotion, it helps us to adapt, avoid negative outcomes, and improve ourselves (Grainger, 1991). Overall, successfully managing expectations is a difficult task, but when done well, reduces disappointment. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2022) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 Chua, H. F., Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., & Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 Craig, A. D. (2009). How do you feel - now? The anterior insula and human awareness. ''Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 10''(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2555 Davidson, R. J. (2004). What does the prefrontal cortex “do” in affect: Perspectives on frontal EEG asymmetry research. ''Biological Psychology, 67''(1), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.008 de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Fox, P. T., Bzdok, D., & Hensel, L. (2016). Functional segregation of the human dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. ''Cerebral Cortex, 26''(1), 304-321. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhu250 Farrer, C., & Frith, C. D. (2002). Experiencing oneself vs another person as being the cause of an action: The neural correlates of the experience of agency. ''NeuroImage, 15''(3), 596–603. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.1009 Grainger, R. D. (1991). Dealing with feelings: The disguise of disappointment. ''The American Journal of Nursing, 91''(11), Article 10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3426784 Helion, C., Krueger, S. M., & Ochsner, K. N. (2019). Emotion regulation across the lifespan. In D’Esposito, M., & Grafman, J. H. (Eds.), ''Handbook of clinical neurology'' (pp.257-280). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804281-6.00014-8. Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Cengage Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Loomes, G., & Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Matarazzo, O., Abbamonte, L., Greco, C., Pizzini, B., & Nigro, G. (2021). Regret and other emotions related to decision-making: Antecedents, appraisals, and phenomenological aspects. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', Article 783248. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.783248 Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., & Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010 Mulligan, K., & Scherer, K. R. (2012). Toward a working definition of emotion. ''Emotion Review, 4''(4), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445818 O’Doherty, J. P. (2004). Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging. ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14''(6), 769–776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.10.016 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', Article 1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Taren, A. A., Venkatraman, V., & Huettel, S. A. (2011). A parallel functional topography between medial and lateral prefrontal cortex: Evidence and implications for cognitive control. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 31''(13), 5026–5031. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5762-10.2011 van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. R., van Empelen, P., & Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube) * [https://mensline.org.au/how-to-deal-with-anger/how-to-deal-with-disappointment/ How to deal with disappointment] (MensLine.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_gilbert_why_we_make_bad_decisions Why we make bad decisions] (TED.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0gks6ceq4eQ You aren't at the mercy of your emotions -- your brain creates them | Lisa Feldman Barrett] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}/Top]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disappointment]] o91n5t4sojndgxrfyrf1s3tds8v0zkg 0 287176 2830234 2424879 2026-09-01T16:24:09Z Michael Ten 654933 direct to main portal update 2830234 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Portal:Law]] 0s831eblqal6d3xsfgos9p1dnodx7vg 0 287552 2830245 2426691 2026-09-01T16:49:06Z Michael Ten 654933 described page and asked AI - "give me 2 to 5 categories for this MediaWiki wiki page for an educational wiki". please remove any that are best to have off. bless up. 2830245 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pro se legal representation''' (being your own lawyer) is a learning project that is intended to explore the legal implications of someone being their own lawyer ([https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/pro_se pro se representation]). The purpose of this is to help individuals learn more about law and the implications of representing oneself in a court of law. This information is not suggesting that you should be your own lawyer; this information is presented for learning and teaching purposes. Knowing about law can help one to interact with lawyers in a more productive way, potentially. Knowing about pro se representation can give one a better understanding of the study of law and how legal and governmental systems work. {{RightTOC}} ==Discussion questions and essay ideas== * Is it generally a bad idea to represent oneself in a court of law? * What are the potential risks and benefits of representing oneself in a court of law? * What are important legal topics to understand if one is going to represent oneself in a court of law? ==Readings== ===Wikipedia=== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Wikipedia:Pro se legal representation in the United States|Pro se legal representation in the United States]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal Information Institute|Legal Information Institute]] * [[Wikipedia:Free Access to Law Movement|Free Access to Law Movement]] * [[Wikipedia:Comparative law wiki|Comparative law wiki]] * [[Wikipedia:Rule of law|Rule of law]] * [[Wikipedia:Law school|Law school]] * [[Wikipedia:Law School Admission Test|Law School Admission Test]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal clinic|Legal clinic]] * [[Wikipedia:Street law|Street law]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal education|Legal education]] * [[Wikipedia:Admission to practice law|Admission to practice law]] * [[Wikipedia:Law degree|Law degree]] * [[Wikipedia:Law School Admission Council|Law School Admission Council]] * [[Wikipedia:Association of American Law Schools|Association of American Law Schools]] * [[Wikipedia:American Bar Association|American Bar Association]] * [[Wikipedia:Lists of law schools|Lists of law schools]] * [[Wikipedia:Casebook method|Casebook method]] * [[Wikipedia:List of national legal systems|List of national legal systems]] * [[Wikipedia:Template:Law|Law (topics) on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Portal:Law|Law Portal on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Lawyer-supported mediation|Lawyer-supported mediation]] * [[Wikipedia:Public defender|Public defender]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal aid in the United States|Legal aid in the United States]] * [[Wikipedia:Collaborative law|Collaborative law]] * [[Wikipedia:Fiduciary|Fiduciary]] * [[Wikipedia:United States corporate law|United States corporate law]] * [[Wikipedia:United States labor law|United States labor law]] * [[Wikipedia:Trust law|Trust law]] {{colend}} ===External === * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/corporations Law related information about corporations] * [https://www.montgomerycountymd.gov/cct/represent-myself.html How Do I Represent Myself?] (Maryland) * [https://www.monmouth.edu/off-campus-and-commuter-services/wp-content/uploads/sites/273/2018/04/RepresentYourselfInCourt.pdf Things to Think About Before You Try to Represent Yourself in Court ] * [https://www.ohnd.uscourts.gov/pro-se-information Pro Se Information] [U.S. Federal] * [https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2673&context=law-review A Constitutional Right to Self-Representation - Faretta v. California] * [https://campusguides.lib.utah.edu/c.php?g=661143&p=4650812 Representing Yourself: A Legal Resource Guide for Pro Se Litigants: Utah State Law Resources] * [https://libguides.law.drake.edu/c.php?g=150943&p=992710 Self-Represented Litigant Resources: Iowa] * [https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5947&context=flr The Federal Rules of Pro Se Procedure] ==Learning resources== * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/ Cornell Legal Law Institute] * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution U.S. Constitution] * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/all Law related definitions] * [https://www.americanbar.org/about_the_aba/aba_public_resources/ Legal Resources for the Public] * [https://libguides.law.umich.edu/c.php?g=748873&p=5362835 Legal Research Resources for the Public: Representing Yourself] * [https://iaals.du.edu/projects/cases-without-counsel/toolkit Self-Help Resources for Self-Represented Litigants] * [https://www.chapman.edu/law/student-resources/achievement-program/20-tips-success.aspx 20 Tips for Success in Law School] ==Resources by state and jurisdiction== This may need sub-pages later or to be re-organized so as not to become excessively large. * [https://www.flsenate.gov/laws Florida Law Information] * [https://libguides.uakron.edu/c.php?g=495095&p=3387924 Ohio Law - Free Websites & Sources] * [https://libguides.law.rutgers.edu/c.php?g=871463&p=6255720 New Jersey Law Research Guide: Materials For Self-Represented Parties] * [https://gato-docs.its.txst.edu/jcr:7efe68c9-5936-46da-b0ae-0ad347ee06c2/1-Tips%20for%20SRLs%20on%20Zoom%20Hearings%20and%20Court%20Processes%20and%20Procedures.pdf Tips for Self-Represented Litigants: Zoom Hearings and Basic Court Processes and Procedures] (Texas) * [https://libguides.law.umn.edu/c.php?g=125798&p=823527 Self-Help Legal Materials] (Minnesota) ==See also== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Portal:Law/WikiProjects]] * [[Portal:Law]] * [[Comparative law and justice]] * [[Nigerian Law]] * [[Ukrainian Law]] * [[Intellectual Property Law]] * [[South African Law]] * [[History of Western copyright law]] * [[Northern Ireland Law]] * [[Australian Law]] * [[International law]] * [[United States Law]] * [[Business Law]] * [[United States Law/First Year Guide]] * [[Law school outlines]] * [[Canadian Law]] * [[English Law]] * [[Religious Law]] * [[Indian Law]] * [[Internet Law]] * [[Educational Law & Ethics]] * [[United Kingdom Law]] * [[Faculty of Law]] * [[Constitutional and International Law Papers]] * [[United States Law/Legal Writing]] {{colend}} [[Category:Law]] [[Category:Legal education]] [[Category:Pro se legal representation]] [[Category:Access to justice]] [[Category:Civics]] 5h1igxrbqtrl2b7vl4etsgffaqk5s8z 2830248 2830245 2026-09-01T16:57:28Z Michael Ten 654933 added "Are there pathways to become a licensed lawyer through a state Bar in The United States without going to law school?" <-- AI assisted wording. I made final edits. if I am misunderstanding/misreading [[Wikiversity:Artificial_intelligence]] please clarify. process [[User:Michael_Ten/Learning]] limitless peace. 2830248 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pro se legal representation''' (being your own lawyer) is a learning project that is intended to explore the legal implications of someone being their own lawyer ([https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/pro_se pro se representation]). The purpose of this is to help individuals learn more about law and the implications of representing oneself in a court of law. This information is not suggesting that you should be your own lawyer; this information is presented for learning and teaching purposes. Knowing about law can help one to interact with lawyers in a more productive way, potentially. Knowing about pro se representation can give one a better understanding of the study of law and how legal and governmental systems work. {{RightTOC}} ==Discussion questions and essay ideas== * Is it generally a bad idea to represent oneself in a court of law? * What are the potential risks and benefits of representing oneself in a court of law? * What are important legal topics to understand if one is going to represent oneself in a court of law? == Large language model (AI/Artificial Intelligence) prompt ideas, that also may be discussion questions. == * Are there pathways to become a licensed lawyer through a state Bar in The United States without going to law school? ==Readings== ===Wikipedia=== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Wikipedia:Pro se legal representation in the United States|Pro se legal representation in the United States]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal Information Institute|Legal Information Institute]] * [[Wikipedia:Free Access to Law Movement|Free Access to Law Movement]] * [[Wikipedia:Comparative law wiki|Comparative law wiki]] * [[Wikipedia:Rule of law|Rule of law]] * [[Wikipedia:Law school|Law school]] * [[Wikipedia:Law School Admission Test|Law School Admission Test]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal clinic|Legal clinic]] * [[Wikipedia:Street law|Street law]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal education|Legal education]] * [[Wikipedia:Admission to practice law|Admission to practice law]] * [[Wikipedia:Law degree|Law degree]] * [[Wikipedia:Law School Admission Council|Law School Admission Council]] * [[Wikipedia:Association of American Law Schools|Association of American Law Schools]] * [[Wikipedia:American Bar Association|American Bar Association]] * [[Wikipedia:Lists of law schools|Lists of law schools]] * [[Wikipedia:Casebook method|Casebook method]] * [[Wikipedia:List of national legal systems|List of national legal systems]] * [[Wikipedia:Template:Law|Law (topics) on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Portal:Law|Law Portal on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Lawyer-supported mediation|Lawyer-supported mediation]] * [[Wikipedia:Public defender|Public defender]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal aid in the United States|Legal aid in the United States]] * [[Wikipedia:Collaborative law|Collaborative law]] * [[Wikipedia:Fiduciary|Fiduciary]] * [[Wikipedia:United States corporate law|United States corporate law]] * [[Wikipedia:United States labor law|United States labor law]] * [[Wikipedia:Trust law|Trust law]] {{colend}} ===External === * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/corporations Law related information about corporations] * [https://www.montgomerycountymd.gov/cct/represent-myself.html How Do I Represent Myself?] (Maryland) * [https://www.monmouth.edu/off-campus-and-commuter-services/wp-content/uploads/sites/273/2018/04/RepresentYourselfInCourt.pdf Things to Think About Before You Try to Represent Yourself in Court ] * [https://www.ohnd.uscourts.gov/pro-se-information Pro Se Information] [U.S. Federal] * [https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2673&context=law-review A Constitutional Right to Self-Representation - Faretta v. California] * [https://campusguides.lib.utah.edu/c.php?g=661143&p=4650812 Representing Yourself: A Legal Resource Guide for Pro Se Litigants: Utah State Law Resources] * [https://libguides.law.drake.edu/c.php?g=150943&p=992710 Self-Represented Litigant Resources: Iowa] * [https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5947&context=flr The Federal Rules of Pro Se Procedure] ==Learning resources== * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/ Cornell Legal Law Institute] * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution U.S. Constitution] * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/all Law related definitions] * [https://www.americanbar.org/about_the_aba/aba_public_resources/ Legal Resources for the Public] * [https://libguides.law.umich.edu/c.php?g=748873&p=5362835 Legal Research Resources for the Public: Representing Yourself] * [https://iaals.du.edu/projects/cases-without-counsel/toolkit Self-Help Resources for Self-Represented Litigants] * [https://www.chapman.edu/law/student-resources/achievement-program/20-tips-success.aspx 20 Tips for Success in Law School] ==Resources by state and jurisdiction== This may need sub-pages later or to be re-organized so as not to become excessively large. * [https://www.flsenate.gov/laws Florida Law Information] * [https://libguides.uakron.edu/c.php?g=495095&p=3387924 Ohio Law - Free Websites & Sources] * [https://libguides.law.rutgers.edu/c.php?g=871463&p=6255720 New Jersey Law Research Guide: Materials For Self-Represented Parties] * [https://gato-docs.its.txst.edu/jcr:7efe68c9-5936-46da-b0ae-0ad347ee06c2/1-Tips%20for%20SRLs%20on%20Zoom%20Hearings%20and%20Court%20Processes%20and%20Procedures.pdf Tips for Self-Represented Litigants: Zoom Hearings and Basic Court Processes and Procedures] (Texas) * [https://libguides.law.umn.edu/c.php?g=125798&p=823527 Self-Help Legal Materials] (Minnesota) ==See also== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Portal:Law/WikiProjects]] * [[Portal:Law]] * [[Comparative law and justice]] * [[Nigerian Law]] * [[Ukrainian Law]] * [[Intellectual Property Law]] * [[South African Law]] * [[History of Western copyright law]] * [[Northern Ireland Law]] * [[Australian Law]] * [[International law]] * [[United States Law]] * [[Business Law]] * [[United States Law/First Year Guide]] * [[Law school outlines]] * [[Canadian Law]] * [[English Law]] * [[Religious Law]] * [[Indian Law]] * [[Internet Law]] * [[Educational Law & Ethics]] * [[United Kingdom Law]] * [[Faculty of Law]] * [[Constitutional and International Law Papers]] * [[United States Law/Legal Writing]] {{colend}} [[Category:Law]] [[Category:Legal education]] [[Category:Pro se legal representation]] [[Category:Access to justice]] [[Category:Civics]] t8ui07j7kgeudq6jl9pkwxrcoza23ak 2830249 2830248 2026-09-01T16:58:41Z Michael Ten 654933 clarify title. maybe can be combined with discussion questions. did combine with discussion questions actually.... 2830249 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pro se legal representation''' (being your own lawyer) is a learning project that is intended to explore the legal implications of someone being their own lawyer ([https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/pro_se pro se representation]). The purpose of this is to help individuals learn more about law and the implications of representing oneself in a court of law. This information is not suggesting that you should be your own lawyer; this information is presented for learning and teaching purposes. Knowing about law can help one to interact with lawyers in a more productive way, potentially. Knowing about pro se representation can give one a better understanding of the study of law and how legal and governmental systems work. {{RightTOC}} ==Discussion questions and essay ideas== * Is it generally a bad idea to represent oneself in a court of law? * What are the potential risks and benefits of representing oneself in a court of law? * What are important legal topics to understand if one is going to represent oneself in a court of law? * Are there pathways to become a licensed lawyer through a state Bar in The United States without going to law school? ==Readings== ===Wikipedia=== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Wikipedia:Pro se legal representation in the United States|Pro se legal representation in the United States]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal Information Institute|Legal Information Institute]] * [[Wikipedia:Free Access to Law Movement|Free Access to Law Movement]] * [[Wikipedia:Comparative law wiki|Comparative law wiki]] * [[Wikipedia:Rule of law|Rule of law]] * [[Wikipedia:Law school|Law school]] * [[Wikipedia:Law School Admission Test|Law School Admission Test]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal clinic|Legal clinic]] * [[Wikipedia:Street law|Street law]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal education|Legal education]] * [[Wikipedia:Admission to practice law|Admission to practice law]] * [[Wikipedia:Law degree|Law degree]] * [[Wikipedia:Law School Admission Council|Law School Admission Council]] * [[Wikipedia:Association of American Law Schools|Association of American Law Schools]] * [[Wikipedia:American Bar Association|American Bar Association]] * [[Wikipedia:Lists of law schools|Lists of law schools]] * [[Wikipedia:Casebook method|Casebook method]] * [[Wikipedia:List of national legal systems|List of national legal systems]] * [[Wikipedia:Template:Law|Law (topics) on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Portal:Law|Law Portal on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Lawyer-supported mediation|Lawyer-supported mediation]] * [[Wikipedia:Public defender|Public defender]] * [[Wikipedia:Legal aid in the United States|Legal aid in the United States]] * [[Wikipedia:Collaborative law|Collaborative law]] * [[Wikipedia:Fiduciary|Fiduciary]] * [[Wikipedia:United States corporate law|United States corporate law]] * [[Wikipedia:United States labor law|United States labor law]] * [[Wikipedia:Trust law|Trust law]] {{colend}} ===External === * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/corporations Law related information about corporations] * [https://www.montgomerycountymd.gov/cct/represent-myself.html How Do I Represent Myself?] (Maryland) * [https://www.monmouth.edu/off-campus-and-commuter-services/wp-content/uploads/sites/273/2018/04/RepresentYourselfInCourt.pdf Things to Think About Before You Try to Represent Yourself in Court ] * [https://www.ohnd.uscourts.gov/pro-se-information Pro Se Information] [U.S. Federal] * [https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2673&context=law-review A Constitutional Right to Self-Representation - Faretta v. California] * [https://campusguides.lib.utah.edu/c.php?g=661143&p=4650812 Representing Yourself: A Legal Resource Guide for Pro Se Litigants: Utah State Law Resources] * [https://libguides.law.drake.edu/c.php?g=150943&p=992710 Self-Represented Litigant Resources: Iowa] * [https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5947&context=flr The Federal Rules of Pro Se Procedure] ==Learning resources== * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/ Cornell Legal Law Institute] * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution U.S. Constitution] * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/all Law related definitions] * [https://www.americanbar.org/about_the_aba/aba_public_resources/ Legal Resources for the Public] * [https://libguides.law.umich.edu/c.php?g=748873&p=5362835 Legal Research Resources for the Public: Representing Yourself] * [https://iaals.du.edu/projects/cases-without-counsel/toolkit Self-Help Resources for Self-Represented Litigants] * [https://www.chapman.edu/law/student-resources/achievement-program/20-tips-success.aspx 20 Tips for Success in Law School] ==Resources by state and jurisdiction== This may need sub-pages later or to be re-organized so as not to become excessively large. * [https://www.flsenate.gov/laws Florida Law Information] * [https://libguides.uakron.edu/c.php?g=495095&p=3387924 Ohio Law - Free Websites & Sources] * [https://libguides.law.rutgers.edu/c.php?g=871463&p=6255720 New Jersey Law Research Guide: Materials For Self-Represented Parties] * [https://gato-docs.its.txst.edu/jcr:7efe68c9-5936-46da-b0ae-0ad347ee06c2/1-Tips%20for%20SRLs%20on%20Zoom%20Hearings%20and%20Court%20Processes%20and%20Procedures.pdf Tips for Self-Represented Litigants: Zoom Hearings and Basic Court Processes and Procedures] (Texas) * [https://libguides.law.umn.edu/c.php?g=125798&p=823527 Self-Help Legal Materials] (Minnesota) ==See also== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Portal:Law/WikiProjects]] * [[Portal:Law]] * [[Comparative law and justice]] * [[Nigerian Law]] * [[Ukrainian Law]] * [[Intellectual Property Law]] * [[South African Law]] * [[History of Western copyright law]] * [[Northern Ireland Law]] * [[Australian Law]] * [[International law]] * [[United States Law]] * [[Business Law]] * [[United States Law/First Year Guide]] * [[Law school outlines]] * [[Canadian Law]] * [[English Law]] * [[Religious Law]] * [[Indian Law]] * [[Internet Law]] * [[Educational Law & Ethics]] * [[United Kingdom Law]] * [[Faculty of Law]] * [[Constitutional and International Law Papers]] * [[United States Law/Legal Writing]] {{colend}} [[Category:Law]] [[Category:Legal education]] [[Category:Pro se legal representation]] [[Category:Access to justice]] [[Category:Civics]] cdyjy5owl62127604ssrqyyk9avg62d 2 289273 2830265 2830131 2026-09-01T17:38:37Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2830265 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - August 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is moving through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]] <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how it projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space of any size is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects we observe (including our sun and our galaxy) is contained in a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) near the largest 3-sphere's surface. We ourselves live within such a 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a tiny patch of a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a 3-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to such 4-dimensional lumps of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know almost nothing about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from protons to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space, and the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion and their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|first imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper spacetime (3-space plus time) coordinate systems.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is <math>2c</math> when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to <math>c</math>, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time<br> <br> ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity<br> <br> ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate.{{Efn| ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it might be useful to do this here...}} == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is also an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q²) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q²) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (their relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). ...this is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point: ...These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q²) resembles a (QT), since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period that it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T). All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be. ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions to turn in. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <math>SO(3)</math> and <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, in contrast to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, spherical space <math>S^3</math> and Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. ... Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity <math>c</math>), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), breaking its stationary <math>SO(4)</math> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. The Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a wide screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math>) breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <math>SO(4)</math>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R³. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S³, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S³, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C_∞ symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S³.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Mass is discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed us that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} 3ui3mxaj3d407psm0bc2df1haxcl4i1 2830266 2830265 2026-09-01T17:41:58Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 2830266 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - August 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is moving through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]] <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how it projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space of any size is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects we observe (including our sun and our galaxy) is contained in a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) near the largest 3-sphere's surface. We ourselves live within such a 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a tiny patch of a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a 3-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to such 4-dimensional lumps of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know almost nothing about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from protons to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space, and the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion and their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|first imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper spacetime (3-space plus time) coordinate systems.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is <math>2c</math> when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to <math>c</math>, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time<br> <br> ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity<br> <br> ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate.{{Efn| ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it might be useful to do this here...}} == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is also an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q²) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q²) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (the relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). ...this is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point: ...These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q²) resembles a (QT), since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period that it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T). All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be. ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions to turn in. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <math>SO(3)</math> and <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, in contrast to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, spherical space <math>S^3</math> and Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. ... Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity <math>c</math>), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), breaking its stationary <math>SO(4)</math> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. But the Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math>) breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <math>SO(4)</math>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R³. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S³, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S³, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C_∞ symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S³.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Mass is discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed us that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} bdrq380ldg6gg13duimlewjb85aetr1 2830268 2830266 2026-09-01T17:51:21Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space */ 2830268 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - August 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is moving through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]] <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how it projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space of any size is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects we observe (including our sun and our galaxy) is contained in a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) near the largest 3-sphere's surface. We ourselves live within such a 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a tiny patch of a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a 3-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to such 4-dimensional lumps of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know almost nothing about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from protons to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space, and the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion and their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|first imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper spacetime (3-space plus time) coordinate systems.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is <math>2c</math> when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to <math>c</math>, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time<br> <br> ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity<br> <br> ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate.{{Efn| ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it might be useful to do this here...}} == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is also an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q²) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q²) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (the relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q²) resembles a (QT). Since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period, it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T).{{Efn| ...this paragraph is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point}} All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be.{{Efn| ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper}} The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions to turn in. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <math>SO(3)</math> and <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, in contrast to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, spherical space <math>S^3</math> and Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. ... Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity <math>c</math>), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), breaking its stationary <math>SO(4)</math> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. But the Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math>) breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <math>SO(4)</math>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R³. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S³, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S³, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C_∞ symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S³.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Mass is discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed us that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} byp3amifrxz0bhbe8fg03hz3e89amvm 2830285 2830268 2026-09-01T19:58:18Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Revolutions */ 2830285 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - August 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is moving through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]] <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how it projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space of any size is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects we observe (including our sun and our galaxy) is contained in a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) near the largest 3-sphere's surface. We ourselves live within such a 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a tiny patch of a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a 3-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to such 4-dimensional lumps of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know almost nothing about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from protons to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space, and the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion and their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|first imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper spacetime (3-space plus time) coordinate systems.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is <math>2c</math> when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to <math>c</math>, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time<br> <br> ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity<br> <br> ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate.{{Efn| ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it might be useful to do this here...}} == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is also an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q²) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q²) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (the relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q²) resembles a (QT). Since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period, it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T).{{Efn| ...this paragraph is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point}} All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be.{{Efn| ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper}} The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions to turn in. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <math>SO(3)</math> and <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, in contrast to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, spherical space <math>S^3</math> and Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. ... Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity <math>c</math>), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), breaking its stationary <math>SO(4)</math> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. But the Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math>) breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <math>SO(4)</math>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R³. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S³, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S³, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C_∞ symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S³.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Mass is discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} t0frbw4vhish2oafw0w4cgi8guthr02 2830286 2830285 2026-09-01T20:04:37Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Dimensional relativity */ 2830286 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - August 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is moving through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]] <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how it projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space of any size is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects we observe (including our sun and our galaxy) is contained in a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) near the largest 3-sphere's surface. We ourselves live within such a 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a tiny patch of a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a 3-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to such 4-dimensional lumps of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know almost nothing about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from protons to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space, and the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion and their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|first imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper spacetime (3-space plus time) coordinate systems.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is <math>2c</math> when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to <math>c</math>, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time<br> <br> ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity<br> <br> ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate.{{Efn| ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it might be useful to do this here...}} == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is also an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q²) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q²) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (the relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q²) resembles a (QT). Since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period, it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T).{{Efn| ...this paragraph is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point}} All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be.{{Efn| ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper}} The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions to turn in. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <math>SO(3)</math> and <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, in contrast to the <math>SO(4)</math> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <math>\mathbb{R^3}</math>, spherical space <math>S^3</math> and Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R^4}</math>. ... Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity <math>c</math>), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), breaking its stationary <math>SO(4)</math> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <math>SO(4)</math> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. But the Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <math>SO(3)</math> rotation component (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<math>\mathrm{QT}</math>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math>) breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <math>SO(4)</math>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R³. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S³, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S³, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C_∞ symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S³.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Mass is discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to ... <math>S^3</math>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <math>H^3</math> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} 7cab05ed472uhaod7gr8cba3chjr4go 0 302417 2830244 2816438 2026-09-01T16:46:40Z Michael Ten 654933 /* See also */ update formatting 2830244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Machine learning models designed for natural language processing}} [[File:LLM-logo.svg|thumb]] Large language models (LLM's) are software programs that are also known as a form of "artificial intelligence" (AI); LLM's are specifically an aspect of generative AI. This wiki area is for learning, teaching, and research related to LLM's. {{RightTOC}} [[Image:Multiple attention heads.png|right|280px|thumb|An illustration of multiple attention heads, each having its own criteria of relevance of other tokens for one of the tokens within the scope of a context window. (For the purpose of illustration, the context window consists of only one sentence.]] ==Discourse and ideas== Here is discourse and ideas related to large language models. Perhaps once significantly developed/refined, some of these can have their own sub-page or become a unique learning resource. ===Learning wikis as training data=== Unless laws change, Creative Commons content appears to be valid training data for LLM's. As LLM's progress and advance, more and more data can be utilized to training increasingly complex models. Learning wikis devoted to learning, teaching, and resource, that allow for original research and original content creation (related to learning, teaching, and research), can potentially be extremely valuable (in terms of educational value) for large language models. Perhaps in the future (if this does not already exist), large language models will be able to continuously be trained on, retain, and learn from new data and information. Perhaps in the future, an open source large language model could only be trained on Creative Commons data, and therefore, all generated content would also be licensed under Creative Commons. ==Discussion questions== Here are some learning and teaching oriented discussion questions related to large language models. Humans can use language and mental effort to explore these ideas collaboratively, or some of these could be used as prompts to see how an LLM might respond. * Would a large language model that is only trained on Creative Commons licensed data only be capable of generating responses to prompts that can also be rightly and correctly licensed under a Creative Commons license? * How might large language models affect learning and research. Will LLM's eventually seen like calculators are in math and sciences now? But for everything (all subjects/topics, including math, physics, ethics, biology, psychology, chemistry, engineering, art)? * What are some ethical considerations related to large language models that should be considered? * What are some pros and cons to open source large language models? Will open source LLM's likely become more advanced the propriety LLM's eventually? What do you think? * How can large language models help to advance and accelerate technological automation in ways that will benefit all of humanity? * In what ways can large language models help programmers to code? * Can music be thought of a language within the realm of large language models? * What is differentiable computing and how does differentiable computing relate to large language models? * How can teachers utilize large language models to help accelerate student learning and to help students learn more efficiently? == Educational prompt ideas== These are original prompt ideas regarding ways to learn about large language models, and also to explore using LLM's for learning, teaching, and research. Input these into your preferred LLM (without quotes) to see what results are generated. LLM's might produce interesting or useful answers in response to these prompts. Some of these prompts may be interesting or useful for discussions among and between humans. * "Describe to me how large language models can be utilized for learning, teaching, and research. Do this in an about 200 word two paragraph mini essay. Explain it to me like I am a freshman in community college." * "Give me a list of 12 ways that large language models can be utilized for learning, teaching, and research." * "How can LLM's be utilized to accelerate the pace of research and scientific discovery?" * "What are some ethical considerations related to large language models that should be considered?" * "What are some pros and cons to open source large language models? Will open source LLM's likely become more advanced the propriety LLM's eventually? What do you think?" * "What are some project ideas to integrate large language models in with humanoid robots, and/or other sorts of robots? Please give me 15 project ideas that can be relatively simple or extremely complex." * "Please search the Internet if possible. In what ways have university professors and academic researchers been using large language models in the last year? Please respond in list form." * "In what ways can large language models help programmers to code? Please provide me 8 examples and respond in list form." * "Can music be thought of a language within the realm of large language models?" * "What is differentiable computing and how does differentiable computing relate to large language models?" * "How can one fine tune an open source large language model?" * "What are some popular state of the art open source large language models. Please search the internet as helpful and respond to me in list form." * "Please give me a list of important terminology that I should be aware of when working with and training open source large language models. Please be comprehensive. Please respond in list form. And please search the internet as helpful." * "What sort of hardware should I utilize to run the most competent open source large language models that I want to utilize for learning, teaching, and research? Please search the internet as helpful." * "How can teachers utilize large language models to help accelerate student learning and to help students learn more efficiently? Please respond in list form." * "How can researchers utilize large language models to create theories, hypothesis, and to formulate potential research studies? Please respond in short paragraphs, but in list form." == Readings and learning media == === Wikipedia === {{:Cross-domain_AI_topics}} ==== LLM Topics ==== Categories and lists: : {{wc|Natural language processing}} :: {{wc|Tasks of natural language processing}} : {{wc|Large language models}} :: {{wc|Generative pre-trained transformers}} :: {{w|List of large language models}} ===== Basics ===== : {{w|ChatGPT}} : {{w|Large language model}} : {{w|Prompt engineering}} : {{w|GPT-4}} : {{w|ChatGPT in education}} : {{w|Turing test}} : {{w|Natural-language understanding}} : {{w|Word embedding}} ===== Intermediate ===== : {{w|Transformer (deep learning architecture)}} : {{w|Attention (machine learning)}} : {{w|LLaMA}} : {{w|Mistral AI}} : {{w|Foundation model}} : {{w|LangChain}} : {{w|Generative pre-trained transformer}} (GPT) : {{w|GitHub Copilot}} ===== Advanced ===== : {{w|Reflection (artificial intelligence)}} : {{w|Reasoning language model}} : {{w|Retrieval-augmented generation}} : {{w|Knowledge distillation}} : {{w|Model compression}} : {{w|History of natural language processing}} : {{w|Neural scaling law}} : {{w|GitHub Copilot}} : {{w|Automated reasoning}} : {{w|Mixture of experts}} : {{w|Gemini (language model)}} : {{w|Auto-GPT}} : {{w|VideoPoet}} : {{w|Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects}} : {{w|Artificial intelligence content detection}} : {{w|Language model}} :: {{w|Language model benchmark}} :: {{w|Language_model#Evaluation_and_benchmarks|Evaluation and benchmarks}} ::: {{w|MMLU}} : {{wc|Tasks of natural language processing}} :: {{w|Question answering}} :: {{w|Sentiment analysis}} :: {{w|Named-entity recognition}} : {{w|Zero-shot learning}} : More :: Internals ::: {{w|Word2vec}} ::: {{w|Seq2seq}} ::: {{w|GloVe}} :: {{w|List of large language models}} ::: {{w|BERT (language model)|BERT}} ::: {{w|T5 (language model)|T5}} ::: {{w|Llama (language model)|Llama}} ::: {{w|Chinchilla (language model)|Chinchilla AI}} ::: {{w|PaLM}} ::: {{w|Generative pre-trained transformer|GPT}} ::: {{w|GPT-1|1}}, {{w|GPT-2|2}}, {{w|GPT-3|3}}, {{w|GPT-J|J}} :::: {{w|ChatGPT}} :::: {{w|GPT-4|4}}, {{w|GPT-4o|4o}} :::: {{w|OpenAI o1|o1}}, {{w|OpenAI o3|o3}} ::: {{w|Claude (language model)|Claude}} ::: {{w|Gemini (language model)|Gemini}} :::: {{w|Gemini (chatbot)|chatbot}} ::: {{w|Grok (chatbot)|Grok}} :: {{w|LaMDA}} ::: {{w|BLOOM (language model)|BLOOM}} ::: {{w|Project Debater}} ::: {{w|IBM Watson}} ::: {{w|IBM Watsonx}} ::: {{w|IBM Granite|Granite}} ::: {{w|Huawei PanGu|PanGu-Σ}} ::: {{w|DeepSeek}} ::: {{w|Qwen}} ===External=== : [https://arena-chapter1-transformer-interp.streamlit.app/ Transformer Interpretability, ARENA] : [https://rdi.berkeley.edu/llm-agents/f24 LLM agents course, Berkeley], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QL-FS_Zcmyo @youtube] : https://anthropic.skilljar.com/ : https://hf.co/learn/, [https://hf.co/learn/smol-course Smol LLM fine-tuning course] : https://academy.openai.com/ : https://cookbook.openai.com/ : https://academy.langchain.com/ : [https://medium.com/@tom_21755/understanding-causal-llms-masked-llm-s-and-seq2seq-a-guide-to-language-model-training-d4457bbd07fa Understanding Causal LLM’s, Masked LLM’s, and Seq2Seq: A Guide to Language Model Training Approaches] : Docs :: https://docs.x.ai/ :: https://platform.deepseek.com/ :: https://platform.openai.com/ :: https://docs.anthropic.com/ :: https://docs.mistral.ai/ : Papers, publications :: https://huggingface.co/papers :: [https://arxiv.org/abs/2201.11903 Chain-of-Thought Prompting Elicits Reasoning in Large Language Models, 2022] :: [https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.09685 LoRA: Low-Rank Adaptation of Large Language Models, 2021] :: [https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762 Attention Is All You Need, 2017] : Articles :: https://www.pinecone.io/learn/retrieval-augmented-generation/ :: [https://stpp.fordschool.umich.edu/tags/large-language-models Large Language Models] - Articles :: [https://hai.stanford.edu/news/how-large-language-models-will-transform-science-society-and-ai How Large Language Models Will Transform Science, Society, and AI] :: [https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/blog/harnessing-the-power-of-large-language-models-for-economic-and-social-good-foundations/ Harnessing the Power of Large Language Models For Economic and Social Good: Foundations] :: [https://courses.grainger.illinois.edu/CS447/sp2023/Slides/Lecture27.pdf Lecture 27: Intro to Large Language Models] ==== Deep Reinforcement Learning ==== : [https://hf.co/learn/deep-rl-course/unit0/introduction Deep RL] :: Huggy, Q-Learning ==== Model Context Protocol (MCP) Course ==== : [https://huggingface.co/learn/mcp-course/unit0/introduction MCP Course] :: Continue, Gradio, Hugging Face Hub, Claude Code, GitHub, Slack ==== AI Agents Course ==== [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit0/introduction Hugging Face AI Agents Course] : [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit1/introduction Introduction to Agents] :: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit1/agent-steps-and-structure Thought-Action-Observation Cycle] : [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/introduction Frameworks for AI Agents] :: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/introduction smolagents] ::: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/code_agents code agents] ::: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/tools tools] ::: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/multi_agent_systems multi-agent] ::: ... [https://huggingface.co/docs/smolagents/index docs] :: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/llama-index/introduction LlamaIndex] ::: ... [https://docs.llamaindex.ai/en/stable/understanding/ docs] :: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/langgraph/introduction LangGraph] ::: ... [https://academy.langchain.com/courses/intro-to-langgraph Introduction to LangGraph], [https://langchain-ai.github.io/langgraph/ docs] : [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit3/agentic-rag/introduction Use Case for Agentic RAG] :: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit3/agentic-rag/invitees tools] : bonus :: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/bonus-unit1/introduction Fine-tuning an LLM for Function-calling] :: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/bonus-unit2/introduction Agent Observability and Evaluation] ==== LLM Course ==== Introductory course about natural large language models (LLMs) and language processing (NLP) using libraries from the Hugging Face ecosystem &ndash; Transformers, Datasets, Tokenizers, and Accelerate. : [https://hf.co/course/chapter0/1 '''LLM Course'''] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/1 Transformer models] ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/2 NLP and LLM], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/3 What], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/4 How], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/5 Encoder], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/6 Decoder], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/7 Sequence-to-sequence], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/8 Bias and limitations], :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/1 Using transformers]: ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/2 pipeline], [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/3 models], [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/4 tokenizer], [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/5 batching], decoding, padding, attention mask :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/1 Fine-tuning a pretrained model]: ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/2 Preprocessing]<small>: tokenization, padding</small>, [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/3 Fine-tuning], [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/4 Full training], map, [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/index dataset], dynamic padding, batch, collate function, train, predict, evaluate, [https://github.com/huggingface/accelerate accelerate] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/1 Sharing models and tokenizers]: ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/2 Using], [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/3 Sharing]: push_to_hub, upload_file, Repository, git lfs, [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/4 Model card] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/1 The datasets library]: ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/2 Loading dataset], [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/3 Slicing], batch, DataFrame, validation, splitting, [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/4 Big]: streaming, [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/5 Creating], [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/6 Semantic search]: embedding, [https://faiss.ai/ FAISS] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/1 The tokenizers library]: ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/2 Training tokenizer], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/3 Fast], grouping, [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/3b QnA], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/4 Pre-tokenization], ([https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/api/models models],[https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/api/trainers trainers]), [https://hf.co/course/en/chapter6/5 Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE)], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/6 WordPiece], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/7 Unigram], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/8 Building]: [https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/api/post-processors post processors], [https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/components#decoders decoders] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/1 Main nlp tasks]: ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/2 Token classification], metrics, perplexity, [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/3 Fine-tuning a masked LM], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/4 Translation], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/5 Summarization], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/6 CLM], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/7 QnA] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/1 How to ask for help] ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/2 Error], [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/3 Forums], [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/4 Debugging], [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/5 Issue] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/1 Gradio Demos] ::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/2 Building], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/3 Interface class], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/4 Sharing], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/5 Integration], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/7 Gradio Blocks] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter10/1 Curate high-quality datasets] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter11/1 Fine-tune Large Language Models] :: [https://hf.co/course/chapter12/1 Build Reasoning Models] :: [https://hf.co/course/events/1 Course Events] ==== Hugging Face docs ==== : https://hf.co/docs : [https://hf.co/spaces/HuggingFaceTB/smol-training-playbook The Smol Training Playbook: The Secrets to Building World-Class LLMs] ===== Core libraries ===== ::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers Transformers] &ndash; State-of-the-art ML for Pytorch, TensorFlow, and JAX. :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/pipeline_tutorial Inference, Tutorials] ::::: {{colbegin|2}} Run inference with pipelines, Write portable code with AutoClass, Preprocess data, Fine-tune a pretrained model, Train with a script, Set up distributed training with Accelerate, Load and train adapters with PEFT, Share your model, Agents 101, Agents, supercharged - Multi-agents, External tools, and more, Generation with LLMs, Chatting with Transformers {{colend}} ::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/pipeline_tutorial Pipline] ::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/llm_tutorial LLM] ::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/conversations Chat] :::: Tasks ::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/sequence_classification NLP] :::::: Text classification, Token classification, Question answering, Causal language modeling, Masked language modeling, Translation, Summarization, Multiple choice ::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/audio_classification Audio], [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/image_classification Vision],[https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/image_captioning Multimodal], [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/generation_strategies Generation], [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/idefics Prompting] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/fast_tokenizers Developer guides] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/quantization/overview Quantization] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/performance Performance] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/contributing Contributing] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/philosophy Conceptual guides] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/agent API] ::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/pipelines#transformers.pipeline pipeline] &ndash; simple interface for inference with models. ::::: ... :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/model_doc/albert Text models] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/internal/modeling_utils Internal helpers] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/model_doc/auto#auto-classes Auto classes]: AutoConfig, AutoModel, and AutoTokenizer. The from_pretrained method. :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/trainer#transformers.Trainer Trainer] and [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/trainer#transformers.TrainingArguments TrainingArguments] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main/en/glossary Glossary] ::::: [https://huggingface.co/docs/transformers/main/en/glossary#head model head] ::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets Datasets] &ndash; Access and share datasets for computer vision, audio, and NLP tasks. :::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/tutorial Tutorials] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/how_to How-to guides] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/about_arrow Conceptual guides] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/package_reference/main_classes Reference] ::: [https://hf.co/docs/accelerate Accelerate] &ndash; Easily train and use PyTorch models with multi-GPU, TPU, mixed-precision. ::: [https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers Tokenizers] &ndash; Fast tokenizers, optimized for both research and production. :::: Main components: Normalizers, Pre-tokenizers, Models, Post-Processors, Decoders :::: More APIs: ... Input Sequences, Encode Inputs, Tokenizer, Encoding, Added Tokens, Visualizer ===== More docs ===== :: [https://hf.co/docs/hub Hub] &ndash; Host Git-based models, datasets and Spaces on the Hugging Face Hub. :: [https://hf.co/docs/diffusers Diffusers] &ndash; State-of-the-art diffusion models for image and audio generation in PyTorch. :: [https://hf.co/docs/huggingface_hub Hub Python Library] &ndash; Client library for the HF Hub: manage repositories from your Python runtime. :: [https://hf.co/docs/huggingface.js Huggingface.js] &ndash; A collection of JS libraries to interact with Hugging Face, with TS types included. :: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers.js Transformers.js] &ndash; Community library to run pretrained models from Transformers in your browser. :: [https://hf.co/docs/api-inference Inference API (serverless)] &ndash; Experiment with over 200k models easily using the serverless tier of Inference Endpoints. :: [https://hf.co/docs/inference-endpoints Inference Endpoints (dedicated)] &ndash; Easily deploy models to production on dedicated, fully managed infrastructure. :: [https://hf.co/docs/peft PEFT] &ndash; Parameter efficient fine-tuning methods for large models ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/tutorial/peft_model_config Tutorial] ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/task_guides/prompt_based_methods PEFT method guides] :::: LoRA, IA3 ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/developer_guides/model_merging Developer guides] :::: Model merging, Quantization, LoRA, Custom models, Adapter injection, Mixed adapter types, torch.compile, Contribute to PEFT, Troubleshooting, PEFT checkpoint format ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/accelerate/deepspeed Acceselerate] :::: DeepSpeed, Fully Sharded Data Parallel ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/conceptual_guides/adapter Conceptual guides] :::: Adapters, Soft prompts: Prompt tuning, Prefix tuning, P-tuning, Multitask prompt tuning, CPT; IA3, OFT/BOFT ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/auto_class API reference] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/auto_class Main classes] ::::: AutoPeftModel, PEFT model, PEFT types, Configuration, Tuner :::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/adalora Adapters] ::::: {{colbegin|2}} AdaLoRA, IA3, Llama-Adapter, LoHa, LoKr, LoRA, X-LoRA, LyCORIS, Multitask Prompt Tuning, OFT, BOFT, Polytropon, P-tuning, Prefix tuning, Prompt tuning, Layernorm tuning, VeRA, FourierFT, VB-LoRA, HRA, CPT, Bone{{colend}} ::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/merge_utils Utilities] :::: Model merge, Helpers, Hotswapping adapters :: [https://hf.co/docs/optimum Optimum] &ndash; Fast training and inference of HF Transformers with easy to use hardware optimization tools. :: [https://hf.co/docs/optimum-neuron AWS Trainium &amp; Inferentia] &ndash; Train and Deploy Transformers &amp; Diffusers with AWS Trainium and AWS Inferentia via Optimum :: [https://hf.co/docs/evaluate Evaluate] &ndash; Evaluate and report model performance easier and more standardized. ::: types: metrics, comparisons, measurements :: [https://hf.co/tasks Tasks] ::: extraction, question answering, classification, generation ... :: [https://hf.co/docs/dataset-viewer Dataset viewer] &ndash; API to access the contents, metadata and basic statistics of all Hugging Face Hub datasets. ::: Splits and subsets, [https://github.com/huggingface/dataset-viewer dataset-viewer] :: [https://hf.co/docs/trl TRL] &ndash; Transformer Reinforcement Learning ::: reward modeling, fine-tuning, optimizations, :: [https://hf.co/docs/sagemaker Amazon SageMaker] &ndash; Train and Deploy Transformer models with Amazon SageMaker and Hugging Face Deep Learning Containers (DLC). :: [https://hf.co/docs/timm timm] &ndash; Pytorch Image Models. ::: State-of-the-art computer vision models, layers, optimizers, training/evaluation, and utilities. :: [https://hf.co/docs/safetensors Safetensors] &ndash; Simple, safe way to store and distribute neural networks weights. :: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference Text Generation Inference (TGI)] &ndash; Toolkit to serve Large Language Models. ::: Conceptual Guides :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/chunking V3 update, caching and chunking] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/streaming Streaming] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/quantization Quantization] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/tensor_parallelism Tensor Parallelism] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/paged_attention PagedAttention] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/safetensors Safetensors] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/flash_attention Flash Attention] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/speculation Speculation (Medusa, ngram)] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/guidance How Guidance Works (via outlines)] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/lora LoRA (Low-Rank Adaptation)] :::: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/external External Resources] :: [https://hf.co/docs/text-embeddings-inference Text Embeddings Inference] &ndash; Toolkit to serve Text Embedding Models. :: [https://hf.co/docs/competitions Competitions] &ndash; Create your own competitions on Hugging Face. :: [https://hf.co/docs/bitsandbytes Bitsandbytes] &ndash; Toolkit to optimize and quantize models. :: [https://hf.co/docs/optimum-tpu Google TPUs] &ndash; Deploy models on [https://cloud.google.com/tpu/docs Google TPUs] via Optimum. :: [https://hf.co/docs/chat-ui Chat UI] &ndash; Open source chat frontend, powers the [https://hf.co/chat HuggingChat] app. :: Extras ::: [https://hf.co/docs/hugs Hugging Face Generative AI Services (HUGS)] ::: [https://hf.co/docs/leaderboards Leaderboards] &ndash; Create your own Leaderboards on Hugging Face. ::: [https://hf.co/docs/autotrain AutoTrain] &ndash; AutoTrain API and UI. :::: [https://hf.co/autotrain autotrain] ::: [https://huggingface.co/docs/smolagents/index smolagents] ===Videos=== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5sLYAQS9sWQ How Large Language Models Work] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JhCl-GeT4jw Large Language Models and The End of Programming - CS50 Tech Talk with Dr. Matt Welsh] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yBI1nPep72Q LMStudio Tutorial Run ANY Open-Source Model LOCALLY] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UU1WVnMk4E8 Create a Large Language Model from Scratch with Python – Tutorial] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eC6Hd1hFvos Fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) | w/ Example Code] ===Data sets=== * [https://hf.co/blog/Pclanglais/two-trillion-tokens-open Releasing the largest multilingual open pretraining dataset] :: [https://hf.co/datasets/PleIAs/common_corpus Common Corpus] :: [https://hf.co/datasets/PleIAs/common_corpus/tree/main Files and versions] ==See also== * [[Computer science]] * [[Artificial intelligence]] * [[Machine learning]] * [[Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning]] * [[Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Laboratory]] * [[Artificial Consciousness]] * [[Supersymmetric Artificial Neural Network]] * [[History of artificial intelligence]] [[Category: Computer science]] [[Category: Machine learning]] [[Category: Artificial intelligence]] 7pj3ega73xiddfscxmabct38hzjcitx 0 305659 2830232 2829934 2026-09-01T16:14:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Milky Way */ 2830232 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (cyan grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel that is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The yellow lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each, which is the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] fvh65nib9bptmcjuj92416lpcb2h5p1 2830233 2830232 2026-09-01T16:17:27Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Milky Way */ 2830233 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel that is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each, which is the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] pvjqca1kwk3mbdm7uf6nrkxj45p1i8c 2830243 2830233 2026-09-01T16:42:01Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Milky Way */ 2830243 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the left of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the right of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] swzmbd9z5ai8k17ye1mqqcgkxckv1ib 2830260 2830243 2026-09-01T17:28:47Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Milky Way */ 2830260 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 4omz6mwrsetqh2mxa3yqs97w776b3q7 2830261 2830260 2026-09-01T17:30:00Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Milky Way */ 2830261 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a yellow line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 758a5mu0krtafnef3g39xr0kd9smpb1 2830274 2830261 2026-09-01T18:26:14Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2830274 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a yellow line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] ''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each; this is roughly the baseline distance typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun would have had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, nine cyan lines respectively represent the polar angle of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] np3wsu9b4i5l83hcihp2k08pr5ualdl 2830275 2830274 2026-09-01T18:27:32Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Milky Way */ 2830275 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a yellow line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] ''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each; this is roughly the baseline distance typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun would have had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, nine cyan lines respectively represent the polar angle of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 0s0b2znu52gms75ox8mz94wh03rb0a0 2830278 2830275 2026-09-01T18:43:35Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2830278 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a yellow line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] ''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each; this is roughly the baseline distance typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun would have had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, nine cyan lines respectively represent the polar angle of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] aynyqpt4k0pkccnrxv42t104rmp2g5v 2830279 2830278 2026-09-01T18:43:58Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Galactic Weeks */ 2830279 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a yellow line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each; this is roughly the baseline distance typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun would have had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, nine cyan lines respectively represent the polar angle of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== The Sun travels roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct difference in calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always remain a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previously conjectured value '''was a practical assumption''' rather than a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar '''is a conceptual model''' used to help visualize the scale of the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 6jaw3jh6h97apzirgl4w1qsep1j2xra 2830282 2830279 2026-09-01T18:58:29Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the Bully system internally consistent? */ 2830282 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|center|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way galaxy at a blistering 0.076% the speed of light (227.7 kilometers per second). And yet, even at that staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour (3,055 seconds) for the Sun to cross a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. The Sun orbits a distance of roughly one solar radius during each 3,055-second period. The following mnemonics are aids to help one remember the length of the solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>) in [[W:astronomical units|astronomical units ]] (AU) and in [[W:light-second|light-seconds]] (ls); the time required for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius (<math>\tau_{R\odot}</math>); and the orbital velocity (<math>V_\odot</math>) relative to the speed of light (c): &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \approx \frac{499}{215} \text{ ls} \approx 2.3209 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 1 \, R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{8}} \text{ ls} \approx 2.33 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math>\tau_{R\odot} \equiv 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &hairsp; :<math> V_{\odot} \equiv \frac{R_{\odot}}{\tau_{R\odot}} \approx 0.07597\% \, c </math> &hairsp; === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region extending from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere; however, Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted out into space by the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. The following mnemonics aid in remembering the size of the heliosphere and the time duration required for the Sun to orbit that distance: &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \approx \frac{16^{4}}{215} \text{ AU} \approx 304.82 \text{ AU} </math> &hairsp; :<math> 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} \sim \frac{10^{10}}{16^{4}} \text{ ls} \approx 152,000 \text{ ls} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{4}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{4} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 6.344 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred approximately 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 97.156 parsecs, which is 10¹⁰ light-seconds, or roughly the distance the Sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. A parsec is a common length unit used in astronomy and is defined such that <math> 20 \pi \text{ parsecs} = 60^{4} \text{ AU} </math>. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are closer to the Sun than 97.156 parsecs, meaning the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 97.156 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] The following mnemonics indicate a typical distance of naked-eye stars and the time required for the Sun to travel that distance: &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim 10^{10} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 97.156 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 415,792 \text{ years} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] ==== The Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Each sector represents about 1,554.5 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 6.65 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 16 equal subsectors of 97.156 parsecs each; this matches the 10¹⁰ light-second distance baseline previously established as typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3e. The Sun orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun will have during Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, which is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. To the right of the red line, nine cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, five cyan grid lines represent the Sun's polar angle during Bully timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. These cyan grid lines are bounded on the right by a yellow line (representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000) and on the left by a yellow line representing timestamp 8210 0000 0000. The Sun's full orbital path around the Milky Way is roughly 49,744 parsecs and is completed in 212.8 million years. &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} &\sim {512 \times 10^{10}} \text{ ls} \\ &\approx 49,744 \text{ parsecs} \end{align} </math> &hairsp; :<math> \begin{align} 512 \times 16^{8}\,\tau_{R\odot} &\equiv 512 \times 16^{8} \times 3,055 \text{ s} \\ &\approx 212.8 \text{ million years} \\ \end{align} </math> &hairsp; == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which is traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. The cyan lines at the bottom of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each; this is roughly the baseline distance typical for naked-eye stars. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun would have had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. To the left of the red line, nine cyan lines respectively represent the polar angle of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel roughly 512 × 10¹⁰ light-seconds (49,744 parsecs) per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (213 million years). However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ timestamps, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 10¹⁰ light-seconds per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.602232 ≈ 397,951 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.602232 ≈ 24,871.9 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.602232 ≈ 1,554.50 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.602232 ≈ 49,744 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | <small>'''2^25.333776''' ≈ 42,288,909</small> | <small>2^-0.063992 ≈ 0.956613 </small> | <small>2⁰ = 1 </small> |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 (2^15.666224) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 (2^15.666040) parsecs of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86 parsecs''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was "sweetheart". The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, "lover". Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | quote = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === The Earth and Moon === [[File:Astronomical_unit_svg.svg|thumb|right|400px|'''TBD:''' The grey line indicates the Earth–Sun distance, which on average is about 1&nbsp;astronomical unit.]] The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. &hairsp; :<math> 1\text{ AU} \approx 499 \text{ ls} \approx 215 \, R_{\odot} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | quote = {{ordered list | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. | The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. }} }} ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|800px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred in the month following the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. <ol> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.</li> <li>Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.</li> </ol> }} ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moons * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 6pmp7mji7063h7tkhokouxjx45z8rf2 2 316385 2830313 2830113 2026-09-01T23:34:37Z Michael Ten 654933 2830313 css text/css /* Change font color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; }*/ /* Change main text color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; } */ /* Change link colors to ... was 4ebfbb .. and white before then 02ddc4 */ a:visited { color: #02ddc4 !important; } /* Change link colors was 0289dd then 059dfc */ a { color: #057cfc !important; } /* Optional: Change hover color if desired */ a:hover { color: #86cafe !important; /* Light gray on hover, adjust as needed */ } /* Reduce spacing between links in the sidebar */ #mw-panel .portal, #mw-panel .body, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content { margin: 0 !important; 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/* Remove outer margin if any */ padding: 0 !important; /* Remove outer padding if any */ } #mw-panel a, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content a { margin: 2px 0 !important; /* Adjust to control vertical space */ padding: 2px 5px !important; /* Adjust padding */ line-height: 1.2 !important; /* Adjust line height for tighter spacing */ } /* trying Make the sidebar less wide .vector-column-start { width: 10em !important; }*/ .mw-enhanced-rc { font-size: 1.15em !important; } .mw-enhanced-rc-nested { font-size: 1.15em !important; } /* Uncreated page links (red links) */ a.new, a.new:visited { color: #ff2222 !important; } /* Optional: distinct hover for uncreated links */ a.new:hover { color: #cc0000 !important; } /* Compact left sidebar */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1000px) { .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; column-gap: 1rem !important; } } */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1200px) { html.vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } } */ .vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } /* External links */ .mw-parser-output a.external, .mw-parser-output a.external:visited { color: #057cfc !important; } p5xwegg28v75eyckmjt54oei5q46wff 2830315 2830314 2026-09-01T23:36:10Z Michael Ten 654933 2830315 css text/css /* Change font color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; }*/ /* Change main text color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; } */ /* Change link colors to ... was 4ebfbb .. and white before then 02ddc4 */ a:visited { color: #02ddc4 !important; } /* Change link colors was 0289dd then 059dfc */ a { color: #057cfc !important; } /* Optional: Change hover color if desired */ a:hover { color: #86cafe !important; /* Light gray on hover, adjust as needed */ } /* Reduce spacing between links in the sidebar */ #mw-panel .portal, #mw-panel .body, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content { margin: 0 !important; /* Remove outer margin if any */ padding: 0 !important; /* Remove outer padding if any */ } #mw-panel a, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content a { margin: 2px 0 !important; /* Adjust to control vertical space */ padding: 2px 5px !important; /* Adjust padding */ line-height: 1.2 !important; /* Adjust line height for tighter spacing */ } /* trying Make the sidebar less wide .vector-column-start { width: 10em !important; }*/ .mw-enhanced-rc { font-size: 1.15em !important; } .mw-enhanced-rc-nested { font-size: 1.15em !important; } /* Uncreated page links (red links) */ a.new, a.new:visited { color: #ff2222 !important; } /* Optional: distinct hover for uncreated links */ a.new:hover { color: #cc0000 !important; } /* Compact left sidebar */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1000px) { .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; column-gap: 1rem !important; } } */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1200px) { html.vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } } */ .vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } /* External links */ .mw-parser-output a.external, .mw-parser-output a.external:visited { color: #02ddc4 !important; } /* Make formatting inside external links use the link color */ .mw-parser-output a.external * { color: inherit !important; } 716i8hmdrt29elk0pcwb34c513ku5kr 2830316 2830315 2026-09-01T23:38:14Z Michael Ten 654933 2830316 css text/css /* Change font color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; }*/ /* Change main text color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; } */ /* Change link colors to ... was 4ebfbb .. and white before then 02ddc4 */ a:visited { color: #02ddc4 !important; } /* Change link colors was 0289dd then 059dfc */ a { color: #057cfc !important; } /* Optional: Change hover color if desired */ a:hover { color: #86cafe !important; /* Light gray on hover, adjust as needed */ } /* Reduce spacing between links in the sidebar */ #mw-panel .portal, #mw-panel .body, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content { margin: 0 !important; /* Remove outer margin if any */ padding: 0 !important; /* Remove outer padding if any */ } #mw-panel a, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content a { margin: 2px 0 !important; /* Adjust to control vertical space */ padding: 2px 5px !important; /* Adjust padding */ line-height: 1.2 !important; /* Adjust line height for tighter spacing */ } /* trying Make the sidebar less wide .vector-column-start { width: 10em !important; }*/ .mw-enhanced-rc { font-size: 1.15em !important; } .mw-enhanced-rc-nested { font-size: 1.15em !important; } /* Uncreated page links (red links) */ a.new, a.new:visited { color: #ff2222 !important; } /* Optional: distinct hover for uncreated links */ a.new:hover { color: #cc0000 !important; } /* Compact left sidebar */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1000px) { .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; column-gap: 1rem !important; } } */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1200px) { html.vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } } */ .vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } html body .mw-parser-output a.external, html body .mw-parser-output a.external:visited, html body .mw-parser-output a.external *, html body .mw-parser-output a.external:visited * { color: #02ddc4 !important; -webkit-text-fill-color: #02ddc4 !important; filter: none !important; } d44wkvwlu5wgj6hbz39knk1fwf9lcbv 2830317 2830316 2026-09-01T23:39:54Z Michael Ten 654933 2830317 css text/css /* Change font color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; }*/ /* Change main text color to white body, #content, .mw-body-content { color: #00091A !important; } */ /* Change link colors to ... was 4ebfbb .. and white before then 02ddc4 */ a:visited { color: #02ddc4 !important; } /* Change link colors was 0289dd then 059dfc */ a { color: #057cfc !important; } /* Optional: Change hover color if desired */ a:hover { color: #86cafe !important; /* Light gray on hover, adjust as needed */ } /* Reduce spacing between links in the sidebar */ #mw-panel .portal, #mw-panel .body, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content { margin: 0 !important; /* Remove outer margin if any */ padding: 0 !important; /* Remove outer padding if any */ } #mw-panel a, #mw-panel .vector-menu-content a { margin: 2px 0 !important; /* Adjust to control vertical space */ padding: 2px 5px !important; /* Adjust padding */ line-height: 1.2 !important; /* Adjust line height for tighter spacing */ } /* trying Make the sidebar less wide .vector-column-start { width: 10em !important; }*/ .mw-enhanced-rc { font-size: 1.15em !important; } .mw-enhanced-rc-nested { font-size: 1.15em !important; } /* Uncreated page links (red links) */ a.new, a.new:visited { color: #ff2222 !important; } /* Optional: distinct hover for uncreated links */ a.new:hover { color: #cc0000 !important; } /* Compact left sidebar */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1000px) { .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; column-gap: 1rem !important; } } */ /* @media screen and (min-width: 1200px) { html.vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } } */ .vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled .mw-page-container-inner { grid-template-columns: 10rem minmax(0, 1fr) !important; } html body .mw-parser-output a.external, html body .mw-parser-output a.external:visited, html body .mw-parser-output a.external *, html body .mw-parser-output a.external:visited * { color: #02ddc4 !important; -webkit-text-fill-color: #02ddc4 !important; filter: none !important; } img[src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikiversity-wordmark-en.svg"] { filter: invert(1) !important; } lxibanaw6ms5qzyeporehjwrsqsiw4d 0 316633 2830226 2830189 2026-09-01T16:00:56Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Crabronini */ 2830226 wikitext text/x-wiki = Afrotropical Crabronidae = All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> ==South African wasps of Tribe Crabronini== Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/378/mode/2up Encopognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/380/mode/2up Entomognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub%20gb%20FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Arnoldita]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/396/mode/2up Crossocerus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Dasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/428/mode/2up Lestica]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Neodasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/386/mode/2up Rhopalum]'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) Lestica bibundica Jacobs 2025.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Lestica bibundica'']]) </gallery> ==Tribe Larrini== Larrini have: *Compound eyes that converge above (sometimes parallel in ''Parapiagetia'' and ''Gastrosericus''); *Posterior ocelli reduced to scars. For a detailed discussion of the tribe see [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/225/mode/2up Bohart & Menke (1976:226-286)]. Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/251/mode/2up Gastrosericus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Holotachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/285/mode/2up Kohliella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/257/mode/2up Larropsis]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/277/mode/2up Parapiagetia]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Prosopigastra]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/267/mode/2up Tachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/255/mode/2up Tachytella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/259/mode/2up Tachytes]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/249/mode/2up Dicranorhina]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/233/mode/2up Larra]'', and ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/237/mode/2up Liris]''.<br> See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Oxybelini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Palarini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} iehv05v23aj5l8rhmxgmw80cgtcvdkq 2830227 2830226 2026-09-01T16:04:13Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Crabronini */ 2830227 wikitext text/x-wiki = Afrotropical Crabronidae = All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> == Tribe Crabronini == Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/378/mode/2up Encopognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/380/mode/2up Entomognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub%20gb%20FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Arnoldita]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/396/mode/2up Crossocerus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Dasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/428/mode/2up Lestica]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Neodasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/386/mode/2up Rhopalum]'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) Lestica bibundica Jacobs 2025.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Lestica bibundica'']]) </gallery> ==Tribe Larrini== Larrini have: *Compound eyes that converge above (sometimes parallel in ''Parapiagetia'' and ''Gastrosericus''); *Posterior ocelli reduced to scars. For a detailed discussion of the tribe see [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/225/mode/2up Bohart & Menke (1976:226-286)]. Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/251/mode/2up Gastrosericus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Holotachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/285/mode/2up Kohliella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/257/mode/2up Larropsis]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/277/mode/2up Parapiagetia]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Prosopigastra]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/267/mode/2up Tachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/255/mode/2up Tachytella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/259/mode/2up Tachytes]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/249/mode/2up Dicranorhina]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/233/mode/2up Larra]'', and ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/237/mode/2up Liris]''.<br> See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Oxybelini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Palarini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} p3288sldcieauigulzml9bobbxln4jq 2830228 2830227 2026-09-01T16:04:43Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Miscophini */ 2830228 wikitext text/x-wiki = Afrotropical Crabronidae = All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> == Tribe Crabronini == Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/378/mode/2up Encopognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/380/mode/2up Entomognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub%20gb%20FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Arnoldita]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/396/mode/2up Crossocerus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Dasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/428/mode/2up Lestica]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Neodasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/386/mode/2up Rhopalum]'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) Lestica bibundica Jacobs 2025.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Lestica bibundica'']]) </gallery> ==Tribe Larrini== Larrini have: *Compound eyes that converge above (sometimes parallel in ''Parapiagetia'' and ''Gastrosericus''); *Posterior ocelli reduced to scars. For a detailed discussion of the tribe see [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/225/mode/2up Bohart & Menke (1976:226-286)]. Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/251/mode/2up Gastrosericus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Holotachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/285/mode/2up Kohliella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/257/mode/2up Larropsis]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/277/mode/2up Parapiagetia]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Prosopigastra]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/267/mode/2up Tachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/255/mode/2up Tachytella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/259/mode/2up Tachytes]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/249/mode/2up Dicranorhina]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/233/mode/2up Larra]'', and ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/237/mode/2up Liris]''.<br> See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Oxybelini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Palarini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} njspurj0ggsbrdvg6ia5b3xp7hj2jgy 2830229 2830228 2026-09-01T16:06:22Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Oxybelini */ 2830229 wikitext text/x-wiki = Afrotropical Crabronidae = All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> == Tribe Crabronini == Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/378/mode/2up Encopognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/380/mode/2up Entomognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub%20gb%20FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Arnoldita]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/396/mode/2up Crossocerus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Dasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/428/mode/2up Lestica]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Neodasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/386/mode/2up Rhopalum]'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) Lestica bibundica Jacobs 2025.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Lestica bibundica'']]) </gallery> ==Tribe Larrini== Larrini have: *Compound eyes that converge above (sometimes parallel in ''Parapiagetia'' and ''Gastrosericus''); *Posterior ocelli reduced to scars. For a detailed discussion of the tribe see [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/225/mode/2up Bohart & Menke (1976:226-286)]. Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/251/mode/2up Gastrosericus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Holotachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/285/mode/2up Kohliella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/257/mode/2up Larropsis]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/277/mode/2up Parapiagetia]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Prosopigastra]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/267/mode/2up Tachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/255/mode/2up Tachytella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/259/mode/2up Tachytes]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/249/mode/2up Dicranorhina]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/233/mode/2up Larra]'', and ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/237/mode/2up Liris]''.<br> See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Oxybelini == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Palarini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} fxvu10v2qoc31n57h6qy5inu5rcscnq 2830230 2830229 2026-09-01T16:06:36Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Palarini */ 2830230 wikitext text/x-wiki = Afrotropical Crabronidae = All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> == Tribe Crabronini == Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/378/mode/2up Encopognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/380/mode/2up Entomognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub%20gb%20FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Arnoldita]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/396/mode/2up Crossocerus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Dasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/428/mode/2up Lestica]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Neodasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/386/mode/2up Rhopalum]'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) Lestica bibundica Jacobs 2025.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Lestica bibundica'']]) </gallery> ==Tribe Larrini== Larrini have: *Compound eyes that converge above (sometimes parallel in ''Parapiagetia'' and ''Gastrosericus''); *Posterior ocelli reduced to scars. For a detailed discussion of the tribe see [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/225/mode/2up Bohart & Menke (1976:226-286)]. Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/251/mode/2up Gastrosericus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Holotachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/285/mode/2up Kohliella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/257/mode/2up Larropsis]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/277/mode/2up Parapiagetia]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Prosopigastra]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/267/mode/2up Tachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/255/mode/2up Tachytella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/259/mode/2up Tachytes]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/249/mode/2up Dicranorhina]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/233/mode/2up Larra]'', and ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/237/mode/2up Liris]''.<br> See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Oxybelini == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Palarini == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} nrt9182sejr655efv8yy6a8gzeszefa 2830231 2830230 2026-09-01T16:06:54Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini */ 2830231 wikitext text/x-wiki = Afrotropical Crabronidae = All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> == Tribe Crabronini == Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/378/mode/2up Encopognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/380/mode/2up Entomognathus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub%20gb%20FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Arnoldita]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/396/mode/2up Crossocerus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Dasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/428/mode/2up Lestica]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/418/mode/2up Neodasyproctus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/386/mode/2up Rhopalum]'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) Lestica bibundica Jacobs 2025.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Lestica bibundica'']]) </gallery> ==Tribe Larrini== Larrini have: *Compound eyes that converge above (sometimes parallel in ''Parapiagetia'' and ''Gastrosericus''); *Posterior ocelli reduced to scars. For a detailed discussion of the tribe see [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/225/mode/2up Bohart & Menke (1976:226-286)]. Genera include ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/251/mode/2up Gastrosericus]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Holotachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/285/mode/2up Kohliella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/257/mode/2up Larropsis]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/277/mode/2up Parapiagetia]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/281/mode/2up Prosopigastra]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/267/mode/2up Tachysphex]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/255/mode/2up Tachytella]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/259/mode/2up Tachytes]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/249/mode/2up Dicranorhina]'', ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/233/mode/2up Larra]'', and ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/237/mode/2up Liris]''.<br> See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Oxybelini == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> == Tribe Palarini == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> == Tribe Trypoxylini == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 7q1bb5htf1puvui28b19olswm7fx3dr 0 316762 2830303 2811317 2026-09-01T21:46:42Z DavidMCEddy 218607 typo 2830303 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This is a discussion of an interview 2024-11-21 with Simon Fraser University professor Ahmed Al-Rawi<ref name=AlRawiSFU><!--SFU homepage of Ahmed Al-Rawi-->{{cite Q|Q131349551}}</ref> about his research into how to understand and counter the rise in political polarization and violence worldwide. This includes a video of that interview and a 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted therefrom, released to the fortnightly "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].<ref><!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates-->{{cite Q|Q6593294}}</ref>'' :''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV>The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs</ref> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF>[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] is different: Contributors there are asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|"Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything."]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.</ref>'' [[File:Media literacy to counter political polarization per Ahmed Al-Rawi.webm|thumb|Media literacy to counter political polarization: Interview with [[w:Simon Fraser University|Simon Fraser University]] professor Ahmed Al-Rawi about media and conflict.]] <!--[[File: ... .ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss extract from interview recorded 2024-10-25 regarding the legal concerns of Wikimedia Europe.]]--> [[w:Simon Fraser University|Simon Fraser University]] professor Ahmed Al-Rawi<ref name=AlRawiSFU/> discusses the media literacy laboratory he co-founded at the Lebanese American University in Beirut<ref><!-- Author archives: Ahmed Al-Rawi, LLRX-->{{cite Q|Q131349668}}</ref> and his research into how to understand and counter the rise in political polarization and violence worldwide. He is interviewed by Spencer Graves. Al-Rawi is the author or co-author of a dozen books in the last dozen years plus co-editor of three others and author of dozens of articles.<ref name=AlRawiCV><!--Curriculum Vitae: Ahmed Al-Rawi-->{{cite Q|Q131349693}}</ref> Most of his publications describe the increase in political polarization and violence worldwide in recent decades and what might be done to counter it. His research has focused primarily on the Arab World and on Canada. At Simon Fraser and elsewhere he has taught classes on media, communications, democracy and power. Al-Rawi is currently an Associate Professor of News, Social Media & Public Communication in the School of Communication, Faculty of Communication, Art & Technology at Simon Fraser University in [[w:Vancouver|Vancouver]], British Columbia, Canada and a scientist with the [[w:International Panel on the Information Environment|International Panel on the Information Environment]]<ref><!--Ahmed Al-Rawi, IPIE-->{{cite Q|Q131349735}}</ref> He has previously taught at other universities in Canada as well as in the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] and in [[w:Oman|Oman]]. Twenty years ago he worked as a freelance radio journalist for the Pacifica Radio Network and before that as a translator for Iraq National Television, [[w:Baghdad|Baghdad]], Iraq. == Cognitive dissonance == Al-Rawi mentioned, "[[w:cognitive dissonance|cognitive dissonance]], which means people tend to avoid any kind of information that would cause them headache, cause them disruption. They would tend to seek information from sources that would align with their own ways of thinking, with their own values.<ref>Starting around 11:27 mm:ss [[:File:Media literacy to counter political polarization per Ahmed Al-Rawi.webm|in the companion video.]]</ref> That's a theory, a well-known theory and social psychology. So it makes a lot of sense that we see this kind of polarization happening in the media sphere as well." == External pluralism == He also discussed [[w:Media pluralism|media theory called "external pluralism]], where you have separate media outlets that are distinctively different from each other." The US has ''[[w:Breitbart News|Breitbart]]'', ''[[w:Fox News|Fox News]]'', ''[[w:American one|America One]]'' Network, and other networks that are deemed to be more liberal. This is also happening in Canada, Europe and everywhere in the Middle East. Iraq has a very pluralistic media scene situated along the political positions of political and religious parties. Al-Rawi insists this is why "we need more religious and political literacy that could be embedded into media literacy, education, so that people will become more aware about the goals of politicians, messages: What is behind that message?" Greater public awareness of these issues could avoid escalation of tensions. Graves asked about the role of the media [[w:Yemen civil war|in the war in Yemen]]. Al-Rawi noted that the different parties to that conflict including Saudi Arabia and Iran each have their own media outlets promoting their own agendas exacerbating the conflict and eliminating possible solutions. Graves asked about the [[Winning the War on Terror|role of the media in the war on terror]]. Al-Rawi had earlier mentioned the role of the major media in the US in parroting what the administration was saying. Graves suggested that any responsible journalist should have known at the time that the official justification for the invasion of Iraq in 2003 was at best questionable and likely fraudulent, as it turned out to be. Al-Rawi replied that this was one of the most "significant turning points in the lives of Muslim Americans, even Muslim Canadians" and Muslims living in Europe, with many forced to leave even though they had done nothing wrong. == Declaring war on bathtubs == Graves noted that Obama as president commented that more Americans have died in the average year [except for 2001] drowning in bathtubs, hot tubs and spas than have succumbed to terrorism.<ref>As noted in the section on [[Winning the War on Terror#2.11. US foreign interventions in opposition to democracy|"US foreign interventions in opposition to democracy"]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[Winning the War on Terror]]", 'On May 23, 2013, then-US President Obama noted that terrorism caused fewer American deaths than car accidents or falls in the bathtub. He occasionally ''had to be badgered by advisors into choices commensurate with popular fear.'' He worried, too, that counterterrorist priorities “swamped” his other foreign policy aspirations.' (Per <!-- Humane: How the United States Abandoned Peace and Reinvented War -->{{cite Q|Q108896140}}, pp. 268, 299-300.)</ref> Al-Rawi agreed: "A lot of people lost their lives, and it's not their fault." In "the war that happened after 2003, the number of people dying every month is like we have a 9-11 every 2 or 3 weeks. ... These were mostly innocent civilians. ... We have the same thing happening, for example, in Gaza and elsewhere." == The relative effectiveness of law enforcement vs. military in combatting terrorism == Graves noted that, "Jones and Libicki found 268 terrorist groups that ended between 1968 and 2,006, 43% ended with negotiations like the Good Friday agreement in Northern Ireland, 40% were taken out by law enforcement. 10% won. 3% were defeated militarily. Yet the United States is promoting the absolute, least effective approach to terrorism."<ref>Jones and Libicki (2008).</ref> Al-Rawi agreed: "Force is not the answer to ending terrorism. Terrorism is an idea. If you want to kill the idea, you have to use another idea." == Talking politics == Al-Rawi noted that, "if you are talking to someone who is trying to enhance political polarization, it's really important to understand where their concerns come from, whether these are imagined or real, because that's where you can actually find a common ground or an alternative identity, whereby you can have a mutual discussion and probably reach some kind of consensus harmony, ... that would at least lessen this kind of polarization." == The threat == Internet company executives have knowingly increased political polarization and violence including the [[w:Rohingya genocide|Rohingya genocide]] in [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]], because doing otherwise might have reduced their profits. Documentation of this is summarized in [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. == Media effect theory == Al-Rawi also discussed "[[w:Influence of mass media|media effect theory]]", which describes how the media influence the thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals in their audience. It sets the agenda for what many people think about. This effect could be both negative, increasing political polarization and the risk of violence, but also positive by focussing on shared identities.<ref>Starting around 15:47 mm:ss in [[:File:Media literacy to counter political polarization per Ahmed Al-Rawi.webm|the accompanying video]].</ref> ==Discussion == :''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV/> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF/>]'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!--Ahmed Al-Rawi (2025, forthcoming) Mediated Racism and democracy in Canada: Interrogating the news industry, political systems, and public discourses, Routledge-->{{cite Q|Q131349901|date=2025b}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2025, forthcoming) Disruptive Information in Canada, Bloomsbury-->{{cite Q|Q131349920|date=2025a}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi et al. (2025) The Canadian Far-Right and Conspiracy Theories, Routledge-->{{cite Q|Q131349937}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2024) The Iraqi Spring: Social Media and Political Activism, Amsterdam U. Pr.-->{{cite Q|Q131350073}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2024) Online hate on social media, Palgrave Macmillan-->{{cite Q|Q131350104}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2024) ISIS' propaganda machine : global mediated terrorism, Routledge-->{{cite Q|Q131350154}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2023) Supernatural Creatures in Arabic Literary Tradition, Routledge-->{{cite Q|Q131350208}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2021) Cyberwars in the Middle East, Routledge-->{{cite Q|Q131350317}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2020) News 2.0: Journalists, Audiences and News on Social Media, Wiley-Blackwell-->{{cite Q|Q131350446}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2020) Women's Activism and New Media in the Arab World, SUNY Pr.-->{{cite Q|Q131350555}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2017) Islam on YouTube : Online Debates, Protests, and Extremism, Palgrave Macmillan-->{{cite Q|Q131350577}} * <!-- Ahmed Al-Rawi (2012) Media Practice in Iraq, Springer-->{{cite Q|Q131350656}} * {{cite Q|Q57515305}}<!-- Jones and Libicki (2008) How terrorist groups end--> [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] a0y6sp8ckwndj38zf7rdcwqter08gef 2 317480 2830246 2830115 2026-09-01T16:50:00Z Michael Ten 654933 2830246 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Notes of prompts === "Write a bit matter of fact but still interesting and flowing. No EM dashes. No Contractions. Avoid Litotes. Respond concisely. Use lists where appropriate. Have your response be at least ### to #### words." I might add on something like "have your output be in a copy box using basic MediaWiki wiki formatting" [describe page] "give me 2 to 5 categories for this MediaWiki wiki page for an educational wiki" ===Notes about learning, research, education, and learning to learn=== Some of this is added here for self reference in case some of this is archived elsewhere on this wiki. === LLM training=== ====Common Corpus and LLM training==== Greetings. I believe LLM generated content is not currently allowed on this wiki. No problem. I am curious - what if the dataset an [[LLM]] is trained on is all in the public domain; would this or does this change that with regards to LLM generated content being allowed (presuming the LLM output is verified and accurate)? Has there been any discussion on this wiki or other MediaWiki wikis about LLM generated content by LLM's that is trained exclusively on CC-0/public domain data? i.e. Common Corpus https://huggingface.co/blog/Pclanglais/common-corpus [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 18:50, 25 December 2024 (UTC) === Certs=== We could issue certificates in some residing in certain jurisdictions probably (?). To my knowledge, there is no legal prohibition federally against doing this in the USA as long as no misrepresentation happens. Although some states might prohibit it (?). Degrees are likely different (at least with respect to accreditation). Please let me know if you believe I am likely incorrect in my understanding. I asked an LLM this prompt, "is there any prohibition legally in USA for a DAO (decentralized autonomous organization or wiki community related to learning, teaching, and research) from issuing certifications or certificates to those who go through learning materials and educational resources that might be on a decentralized or nonprofit wiki that has an active community?" (i won't post the specific result, but I wrote and engineered that prompt myself). The LLM output seemed to indicate my understanding noted here is correct, but LLM's are sometimes wrong. what do you or others think about this? qd9cyxafviw5perh2qhdbab5og2d2lv 2830253 2830246 2026-09-01T17:05:29Z Michael Ten 654933 refinement 2830253 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Notes of prompts === "Write a bit matter of fact but still interesting and flowing. No EM dashes. No Contractions. Avoid Litotes. Respond concisely. Use lists where appropriate. Have your response be at least ### to #### words." I might add on something like "have your output be in a copy box using basic MediaWiki wiki formatting" [describe page] "give me 2 to 5 categories for this MediaWiki wiki page for an educational wiki" ===Notes about learning, research, education, and learning to learn=== Some of this is added here for self reference in case some of this is archived elsewhere on this wiki. === LLM training=== ====Common Corpus and LLM training==== Greetings. I believe LLM generated content is not currently allowed on this wiki. No problem. I am curious - what if the dataset an [[LLM]] is trained on is all in the public domain; would this or does this change that with regards to LLM generated content being allowed (presuming the LLM output is verified and accurate)? Has there been any discussion on this wiki or other MediaWiki wikis about LLM generated content by LLM's that is trained exclusively on CC-0/public domain data? i.e. Common Corpus https://huggingface.co/blog/Pclanglais/common-corpus [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 18:50, 25 December 2024 (UTC) === Certs=== We could issue certificates in some residing in certain jurisdictions probably (?). To my knowledge, there is no legal prohibition federally against doing this in the USA as long as no misrepresentation happens. Although some states might prohibit it (?). Degrees are likely different (at least with respect to accreditation). Please let me know if you believe I am likely incorrect in my understanding. I asked an LLM this prompt, "is there any prohibition legally in USA for a DAO (decentralized autonomous organization or wiki community related to learning, teaching, and research) from issuing certifications or certificates to those who go through learning materials and educational resources that might be on a decentralized or nonprofit wiki that has an active community?" (i won't post the specific result, but I wrote and engineered that prompt myself). The LLM output seemed to indicate my understanding noted here is correct, but LLM's are sometimes wrong. what do you or others think about this? == Writing refinement == re-summarize the first paragraph/general response answer to original prompt. explain it in more plain English. like as if for an educational wiki. be a bit matter of fact but still interesting and flowing. no contractions. no em dashes. no litotes . do it in one paragraph. orpxqjurjntk8ubm6hk9wjf7hv0c03d 0 317725 2830269 2796783 2026-09-01T17:52:37Z Michael Ten 654933 added questions, updated section title, and reordered sections. bless up. 2830269 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a learning project about decentralized wikis. The project focuses on decentralizing wikis so that that there is distributed data in ways that is censorship resistant and persistent. Distributed and decentralized wikis have potentially many advantages to centralized wikis. Hopefully this project can help individuals understand decentralized systems better, understand blockchain better, understand wikis better, and potentially create systems that are more inclusive for all potential wiki volunteer editors and creators of Creative Common content related to learning, teaching, education, and research. With wikis that have content under CC-BY-SA licenses, distributed/decentralized wikis can effectively back-up all content and effectively mirror content. ==Notes on technical implementation== ===Through WordPress and Node.js architecture=== This is some notes about how decentralized wikis could be implemented with WordPress and additional technical architecture. WordPress is highly customizable and could potentially be made to be compatible with MediaWiki. * WordPress could be adapted to render MediaWiki syntax. This could help WordPress sites be compatible with MediaWiki effectively. ** MediaWiki can be cumbersome to update and maintain. WordPress arguably has a much simpler upgrade process and install process than MediaWiki. This may help enable decentralized wikis to be utilized by a less technical user group. *** Through WordPress plugins and PHP code blocks, one can ensure that proper labeling of Creative Commons content is maintained on all public facing pages. *** Separate pages (possibly through a custom taxonomy) can be utilized to track and maintain a "View history" for each page of the distributed wiki. ** WordPress plugins could be developed to communicate with the Arweave blockchain or Bitcoin Cash blockchain (using Memo or Member technology to store data). *** Federation (and the ActivityPub protocol) could also be utilized to federate wikis, in addition to or instead of blockchain technology (i.e. Arweave or Member technology) **** Member (Bitcoin Cash related) technology is a method of stringing together op_return memos to store paragraphs or source code (including MediaWiki markup). ** Parsoid or MediaWiki API's could be utilized to convert MediaWiki syntax data into HTML that WordPress can render. ** https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/API%3AParsing_wikitext ** https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/API:Main_page ** https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Parsoid * "TK" (more ideas "to come") ===Through modifying existing Federated software=== * Lemmy which is sort of like a decentralized Reddit, enables distributed (Federated) Lemmy instances. ** https://github.com/LemmyNet/lemmy * This software could be modified to do the following. ** Display (render) MediaWiki syntax. ** Keep a list of edits (history) to wiki pages ** Display the appropriate CC-BY-SA license on all content and ensure posters agree to release their contributions under the CC-BY-SA license. ** Allow individuals to fork pages, while retaining an edit history ** Through the ActivityPub protocol display a list of all recent changes ** Filtering could be implemented so each individual accessing the decentralized wiki could choose which sort of content they want to see and not want to see *** Users could choose to only see pages that do not have certain biases (this would go beyond basic decentralized wiki functionality) ** Such software could also interface with IPFS or Arweave to not only have decentralized Federated wikis, but also ensure such content is persistent, censorship resistant, and widely accessible and forkable. === Opensource Markdown readers and decentralized wiki integration === [[Image:MediaWiki syntax to HTML syntax to Markdown syntax diagram.png|right|300px|thumb]] Here are some additional notes on potential technical implementation. These involve the idea of sharing content to CC-BY-SA decentralized wikis from open source markdown readers and personal knowledge repositories. Markdown is a relatively popular syntax for managing personal knowledge repositories. There are widely used closed source markdown readers, like Obsidian. There are also open source markdown readers. There could be features to enable individuals to easily convert between markdown syntax, HTML and MediaWiki syntax. MediaWiki syntax is of course compatible with the many WikiMedia projects. For distributed wikis to be implemented by those who do not want to administer or for MediaWiki itself, then markdown might be ideal for those who wish to store information offline for later personal reference, or who wish to push personal knowledge (stored in markdown) to decentralized wikis (that may use HTML or MediaWiki syntax. ** It is possible that making it frictionless and easy to switch the syntax that information is conveyed in may allow for decentralized wikis in a more efficient and effective way. *** Marked source code https://github.com/markedjs/marked *** Marked on NPM https://www.npmjs.com/package/marked * Markdown repositories could have a plugin or feature to share information via decentralized wikis and to share content under CC-BY-SA *Personal knowledge repositories (that are open source and use markdown) include ** Logseq https://github.com/logseq/logseq ** Joplin https://github.com/laurent22/joplin ** Trillium notes https://github.com/zadam/trilium ** HedgeDoc https://github.com/hedgedoc/hedgedoc ** Foam https://github.com/foambubble/foam ** https://github.com/Requarks/wiki ==Related learning resources== * [[Distributed Virtual Supercomputer]] * [[Blockchain]] * [[Decentralized autonomous organizations]] * [[Decentralizing Wikipedia and its sister projects]] ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and AI prompt ideas== * How might decentralizing wikis help to reduce the possibility of censorship? * What countries engage in the most censorship and how can distributed wiki technology potentially help ensure all humans on Earth have access to truthful and factual information? * What are the pros and cons of decentralizing wikis and information sharing? * What are potential problems with centralizing how information is stored and distributed/shared? * How can blockchain help to enable decentralized wiki technologies? ** What other technologies can be utilized for decentralized wikis? * How could a decentralized wikis and distributed wikis be designed and implemented from a technological perspective? * How could the Fediverse and federation help enable distributed wikis? ** Could decentralized wikis be implemented through a federated wiki architecture? If yes, how might this be designed? * How could ActivityPub protocol be utilized to build a sort of recent changes page for decentralized wikis? * How might IPFS technology enable distributed wikis? * How could existing federated software be modified to enable decentralized wikis? * With relatively new decentralized file system technologies like IPFS and Arweave, how could an interested group go about decentralizing MediaWiki wikis and other sorts of wikis? * What are various decentralized file system technologies similar too IPFS and Arweave? Which of these may be most compatible with decentralizing wikis that remain persistent and permanent on the Internet? ==Related readings== ===Wikipedia=== {{colbegin|3}} * [[w:Odysee#Arweave|Arweave]] * [[w:Decentralised system|Decentralised system]] * [[w:Peer-to-peer|Peer-to-peer]] * [[w:List of blockchains|List of blockchains]] * [[w:Decentralized application|Decentralized application]] * [[w:Distributed ledger|Distributed ledger]] * [[w:Cryptoeconomics|Cryptoeconomics]] * [[w:Eventual consistency|Eventual consistency]] * [[w:Fediverse|Fediverse]] * [[w:ActivityPub|ActivityPub]] * [[w:List of P2P protocols|List of P2P protocols]] * [[w:Semantic P2P networks|Semantic P2P networks]] * [[w:Decentralization|Decentralization]] * [[w:Decentralized web|Decentralized web]] * [[w:Decentralized application|Decentralized application]] * [[w:Category:Peer-to-peer computing|Peer-to-peer computing (Category)]] * [[w:Bootstrapping node|Bootstrapping node]] * [[w:InterPlanetary File System|InterPlanetary File System]] * [[w:Distributed learning|Distributed learning]] * [[w:List of wiki software|List of wiki software]] * [[w:History of wikis|History of wikis]] * [[w:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]] * [[w:Distributed version control|Distributed version control]] * [[w:Distributed database|Distributed database]] * [[w:Distributed development|Distributed development]] * [[w:Distributed computing|Distributed computing]] * [[w:Distributed SQL|Distributed SQL]] * [[w:Wiki.js|Wiki.js]] * [[w:Federated Wiki|Federated Wiki]] * [[w:Federated database system|Federated database system]] {{colend}} ==External learning links== * [https://forgefed.org/ ForgeFed - is a federation protocol for software forges] * [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-2540-4_4 WikiChain: A Blockchain-Based Decentralized Wiki Framework] ==See also== * [[Distributed Virtual Supercomputer]] [[Category: Decentralized systems]] [[Category: Decentralization]] [[Category: Distributed systems]] [[Category: Wikis]] 9o07q1rw3k8z2acwoonfnipc6e82yph 0 321564 2830251 2802693 2026-09-01T17:01:35Z Michael Ten 654933 fix heading 2830251 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly> ====Cross-domain AI topics==== </includeonly> : {{w|Adversarial machine learning}} : {{w|AI alignment}} : {{w|Attention (machine learning)}} : {{w|Backpropagation}} : {{w|Deep learning}} : {{w|Embedding (machine learning)}} : {{w|Fairness (machine learning)}} : {{w|Feature learning}} : {{w|Fine-tuning (deep learning)}}, SFT &ndash; supervised fine-tuning : {{w|Loss function}} : {{w|Mechanistic interpretability}} : {{w|Multilayer perceptron}} (MLP) : {{w|Overfitting|Overfitting and Underfitting}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning}}, RLVR - or Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards :: {{w| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_gradient_method#Group_Relative_Policy_Optimization_(GRPO)|GRPO - Group Relative Policy Optimization}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning from human feedback}} : {{w|Supervised learning}} / {{w|Unsupervised learning}} : {{w|Training, validation, and test data sets}} : {{w|Transfer learning}} === Categories and lists === : {{wc|Artificial intelligence laboratories}} : {{wc|Artificial intelligence companies}} : {{w|Glossary of artificial intelligence}} [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] guj9ys55ezcgvc661b1nb219qezhmdg 2830252 2830251 2026-09-01T17:02:55Z Michael Ten 654933 added ==Learning prompt ideas== 2830252 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly> ====Cross-domain AI topics==== </includeonly> : {{w|Adversarial machine learning}} : {{w|AI alignment}} : {{w|Attention (machine learning)}} : {{w|Backpropagation}} : {{w|Deep learning}} : {{w|Embedding (machine learning)}} : {{w|Fairness (machine learning)}} : {{w|Feature learning}} : {{w|Fine-tuning (deep learning)}}, SFT &ndash; supervised fine-tuning : {{w|Loss function}} : {{w|Mechanistic interpretability}} : {{w|Multilayer perceptron}} (MLP) : {{w|Overfitting|Overfitting and Underfitting}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning}}, RLVR - or Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards :: {{w| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_gradient_method#Group_Relative_Policy_Optimization_(GRPO)|GRPO - Group Relative Policy Optimization}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning from human feedback}} : {{w|Supervised learning}} / {{w|Unsupervised learning}} : {{w|Training, validation, and test data sets}} : {{w|Transfer learning}} === Categories and lists === : {{wc|Artificial intelligence laboratories}} : {{wc|Artificial intelligence companies}} : {{w|Glossary of artificial intelligence}} == Related rearning prompt ideas== * Provide 8 examples of "cross-domain AI topics". Briefly describe what "Cross-domain AI topics" are. Answer concisely and in list form. Do not be terse however. Be clear and understandable. [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] m4ugeo131qxaeax08dlsey6b8fu9pnp 2830254 2830252 2026-09-01T17:06:26Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Categories and lists */ clarified === Categories and lists (on Wikipedia) === 2830254 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly> ====Cross-domain AI topics==== </includeonly> : {{w|Adversarial machine learning}} : {{w|AI alignment}} : {{w|Attention (machine learning)}} : {{w|Backpropagation}} : {{w|Deep learning}} : {{w|Embedding (machine learning)}} : {{w|Fairness (machine learning)}} : {{w|Feature learning}} : {{w|Fine-tuning (deep learning)}}, SFT &ndash; supervised fine-tuning : {{w|Loss function}} : {{w|Mechanistic interpretability}} : {{w|Multilayer perceptron}} (MLP) : {{w|Overfitting|Overfitting and Underfitting}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning}}, RLVR - or Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards :: {{w| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_gradient_method#Group_Relative_Policy_Optimization_(GRPO)|GRPO - Group Relative Policy Optimization}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning from human feedback}} : {{w|Supervised learning}} / {{w|Unsupervised learning}} : {{w|Training, validation, and test data sets}} : {{w|Transfer learning}} === Categories and lists (on Wikipedia) === : {{wc|Artificial intelligence laboratories}} : {{wc|Artificial intelligence companies}} : {{w|Glossary of artificial intelligence}} == Related rearning prompt ideas== * Provide 8 examples of "cross-domain AI topics". Briefly describe what "Cross-domain AI topics" are. Answer concisely and in list form. Do not be terse however. Be clear and understandable. [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] bz3q9p6lhrdmoy783pb7clujfg5jv32 2830259 2830254 2026-09-01T17:18:46Z Michael Ten 654933 This area is for learning about studying cross-domain AI topics. and added clarifying heading... 2830259 wikitext text/x-wiki This area is for learning about studying cross-domain AI topics. <includeonly> ====Cross-domain AI topics==== =====Wikipedia readings===== </includeonly> : {{w|Adversarial machine learning}} : {{w|AI alignment}} : {{w|Attention (machine learning)}} : {{w|Backpropagation}} : {{w|Deep learning}} : {{w|Embedding (machine learning)}} : {{w|Fairness (machine learning)}} : {{w|Feature learning}} : {{w|Fine-tuning (deep learning)}}, SFT &ndash; supervised fine-tuning : {{w|Loss function}} : {{w|Mechanistic interpretability}} : {{w|Multilayer perceptron}} (MLP) : {{w|Overfitting|Overfitting and Underfitting}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning}}, RLVR - or Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards :: {{w| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_gradient_method#Group_Relative_Policy_Optimization_(GRPO)|GRPO - Group Relative Policy Optimization}} : {{w|Reinforcement learning from human feedback}} : {{w|Supervised learning}} / {{w|Unsupervised learning}} : {{w|Training, validation, and test data sets}} : {{w|Transfer learning}} === Categories and lists (on Wikipedia) === : {{wc|Artificial intelligence laboratories}} : {{wc|Artificial intelligence companies}} : {{w|Glossary of artificial intelligence}} == Related rearning prompt ideas== * Provide 8 examples of "cross-domain AI topics". Briefly describe what "Cross-domain AI topics" are. Answer concisely and in list form. Do not be terse however. Be clear and understandable. [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] 5s69ejetoqmwkvdwj6k2o5ogy4l9mj8 0 322621 2830328 2823381 2026-09-02T00:48:16Z P U3270518 3106535 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it more grammatically correct 2830328 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cancer screening and emotion:<br>How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Diagram showing T stages of bowel cancer CRUK 276.svg|thumb|right|300px|Diagram of T-stages in bowel cancer]] ;Imagine ... You are 23 years old and notice something unusual with your body. Weeks pass, but you ignore it. Many of your symptoms match those linked to [https://www.bowelcanceraustralia.org/bowel-cancer/early-onset/ Bowel Cancer] , but that seems impossible, right? You’re only 23. Fear and anxiety take over, and you delay seeing a doctor or undergoing a screening, convincing yourself that not knowing is safer than facing the possibility of bad news. By the time you seek help, your health has deteriorated rapidly. A screening confirms bowel cancer, but it’s already at stage four. The only treatment option left is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palliative%20care palliative care]. Now, let’s rewind and change the scenario. You’re the same 23-year-old, noticing something is wrong. You still feel fear and anxiety but this time, those emotions push you to act. You want relief and don’t want to keep carrying the weight of uncertainty, so you seek answers to ease your mind. You see your doctor immediately, who recommends a cancer screening. The result is still bowel cancer, but it’s been caught early. Surgery successfully removes the tumor, and your survival chance is over 90%. These two stories show how the same emotions fear and anxiety can either prevent action and lead to devastating outcomes or motivate action and lead to life-saving results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Many people wonder, if early bowel cancer detection improves survival then why do so many people avoid screening? The truth is that cancer diagnosis isn’t just a medical decision as there are various emotions attached to it. Emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and shame can delay individual's action to screen, while relief and reassurance drive others to screen. These emotions can make cancer screening feel overwhelming, even when it’s free or accessible. Understanding these challenges helps explain why bowel cancer screening participation rates remain lower than expected and shows both the barriers and opportunities for encouraging more people to take part in life-saving cancer screening (Ireland et al., 2022). This chapter explores how emotions shape cancer screening. It begins by explaining what screening is and why early detection matters. It then examines barriers such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and stigma, alongside positive emotions like relief, hope, and empowerment. Public health campaigns are considered for their role in shaping behaviour. Finally, three psychological theories: the Health Belief Model, Protection Motivation Theory, and Theory of Planned Behaviour are applied to explain these emotional patterns and suggest strategies for improving participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How do fear and anxiety influence decisions about cancer screening uptake? * What role does relief-seeking play in motivating individuals to undergo screening? * In what ways can anxiety act as both a motivator and a barrier to screening participation? * Why are some individuals more likely than others to seek medical answers promptly? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is cancer screening?== '''Screening vs diagnosis''' Cancer screening checks for disease in people without symptoms, aiming to detect cancer early when treatment is most effective (Better Health Channel). In Australia, national programs exist for breast, cervical, bowel, and lung cancer. Screening differs from diagnosis, as screening looks for possible disease while diagnosis confirms cancer through further investigation. '''Importance of early detection''' According to the Australian Government Department of Health (2025), cancer often develops slowly and may remain symptomless until later stages, when treatment is less effective. Early detection allows intervention before spread, improving outcomes. The AIHW (2022) reports that breast cancer mortality among women aged 50–74 dropped from 74 deaths per 100,000 in 1991 to 41 in 2020 since BreastScreen Australia began, highlighting the life-saving potential of screening. It is important to note however Australia only represents a small portion of the human population. '''Examples of screening programs''' Australia offers national screening for breast, cervical, bowel, and lung cancer. Other high-income countries provide similar programs, with some differences. The UK screens for breast cancer every three years rather than two, while some US groups recommend starting at 40. Australia uses HPV testing for cervical screening, whereas many countries still use Pap smears. Bowel screening here is via mailed FIT kits, but in Germany and the US colonoscopy is common. Lung cancer screening is not routine in Australia, while the US and Canada recommend low-dose CT scans for high-risk groups. Germany and Austria also offer skin cancer screening (Ebell et al., 2018). '''Survival rates''' Early detection greatly improves survival across cancers. For lung cancer, five-year survival for stage 1 is ~64% (Cancer Treatment Centers of America, n.d.). For breast cancer, survival is close to 100% at stage 1 but only 32% at stage 4 (National Breast Cancer Foundation, n.d.). Cervical cancer survival is 91% when detected early versus 19% for distant stage (National Cancer Institute, n.d.). In bowel cancer, the AIHW (2025) reported 7,265 diagnoses and 1,793 deaths in Australians aged 50–74 during 2024, showing the impact of early detection. [[File:Lead time bias.svg|Lead_time_bias]] Figure 1. Comparison of cancer detected through screening versus symptoms, showing how earlier detection can increase perceived survival time. This earlier diagnosis may reduce anxiety and provide relief, but fear of the result can also deter some individuals from screening. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Survival rates by cancer type and stage of detection''' ! Cancer type ! Early detection survival rate ! Late detection survival rate |- | Lung (Stage 1) | 64% | Much lower in later stages |- | Breast | 100% (Stage 1) | 32% (Stage 4) |- | Cervical | 91% (early stage) | 19% (distant stage) |- | Bowel (Australia, 2024) | 7,265 diagnosed (50–74) | 1,793 deaths (50–74) |} ==Emotional barriers to screening== If survival is so much higher with early detection{{f}}, what stops people from screening? Often, it comes down to emotion. Have you ever avoided something because you feared the result? “Ignorance is bliss” captures the mindset many adopt. Avoiding stressful situations can feel easier than confronting them.{{f}} Despite the life-saving potential of screening, many avoid it due to emotional barriers. Fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and stigma can outweigh rational awareness of benefits. These barriers are shaped not only by individual psychology but also by broader cultural and social influences.{{f}} '''Fear of diagnosis''' Avoiding threats is human nature. Furedi (2007) argues a “culture of fear” encourages avoidance. In cancer screening, fear of bad news can create denial and delay. For many{{f}}, seeking help makes the issue feel more real, while ignorance feels safer. The Health Belief Model (HBM) suggests fear heightens severity and susceptibility but can also raise barriers{{f}}. A relatable example is procrastinating on an assignment: the stress of confronting it outweighs the relief of finishing it. Similarly, fear of {{what}} results can outweigh benefits of early detection{{f}}. Fear increases risk perception (“I could have cancer”) but often leads to avoidance (“I don’t want to know”). Many postpone mammograms despite knowing the risks, convincing themselves not knowing is preferable{{f}}. According to the HBM, behaviour occurs when perceived benefits outweigh barriers (Conner & Norman, 2015). In screening, fear raises awareness but also amplifies distress{{f}}. Thus, fear can motivate or paralyse, depending on threat perception and coping ability. '''Anxiety about pain, discomfort, or embarrassment''' Biardeau et al. (2017) found nearly 60% of {{what}} patients reported pain during cystoscopy{{explain}}, 41–58% anxiety, and 22–35% embarrassment. These {{g}} highlight how discomfort deters participation. In cancer screening, pain plus embarrassment from intimate procedures (Pap smears, HPV tests, colonoscopy, FIT kits) are strong deterrents{{f}}. HBM explains this as barriers outweighing benefits, while PMT suggests high threat plus low coping appraisal leads to avoidance. Biardeau et al. (2017) also found younger patients and those given detailed information sometimes reported higher anxiety, showing distress can stem from expectations as much as the procedure itself. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Emma, 55, avoided her free bowel kit, calling it “gross” and “awkward.” Despite family history of cancer, months later it remained unopened. Embarrassment outweighed her knowledge of benefits, showing how discomfort blocks participation. [[File:Bowel cancer Home Test Kit Instructions and test tubes in Australia, 2022.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Home bowel cancer screening kit and instructions]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Stigma and shame''' Stigma and shame, shaped by culture or religion, also deter screening{{f}}. Ahmed et al. (2022) found Caribbean women avoided breast and cervical screening due to modesty or stigma. Screenings often involve “taboo” body parts, amplifying embarrassment. Stigma intersects with identity gender, age, religion and in some communities is wrongly linked to sexual activity or “bad morals.” Though inaccurate, this belief deters participation. The TPB explains this through subjective norms: when communities see screening as shameful, this norm can override knowledge of benefits. HBM also frames shame as a barrier. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} A migrant woman avoids a Pap smear because only male GPs bulk bill in her area. Reinforced by her husband’s views, stigma and financial barriers outweigh her friends’ reassurance, so she avoids screening. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotions and motivation to screen== '''Relief-seeking''' On the positive side, many find relief in cancer screening and use it to reduce uncertainty. A normal result provides peace of mind, often motivating repeat screening and encouraging others to participate. Relief can therefore create a positive cycle{{f}}. However, relief also carries risks. Some interpret a clear result as proof they are safe, delaying follow-ups{{f}}. Marteau (1990) explained that while screening reduces psychological burden, it can also mask ongoing risk if results are misinterpreted. HBM suggests relief increases perceived benefits, but false reassurance reduces susceptibility. PMT suggests relief lowers threat appraisal if not paired with strong efficacy messages.{{f}} '''Hope, empowerment, and reassurance''' Hope, empowerment, and reassurance shape screening. Feeling in control of one’s health reduces anxiety and increases uptake{{f}}. Autonomy, like accessing screening without referral, strengthens agency. Hope can also turn fear into action. For some, fear motivates, and seeking reassurance through screening reduces uncertainty.{{f}} Health campaigns can foster empowerment by emphasising choice. Davison and Degner (1997) found participation {{vague}} reinforced feelings of control. Similarly, Affendi et al. (2018) showed self-efficacy predicts health behaviour. Confidence consistently predicts preventive action, aligning with HBM (self-efficacy) and TPB (perceived control). '''Public Health Campaigns and Framing''' Public health campaigns strongly influence screening. Positive framing that fosters hope and empowerment is often more effective than fear appeals. Fear can motivate, but only when people feel able to respond otherwise, it drives avoidance (PMT).{{f}} Gressard et al. (2017) found smokers initially knew little about lung cancer screening but showed interest when informed. However, fatalistic beliefs, distrust, and confusion limited uptake. This shows campaigns must avoid fuelling misconceptions and instead provide clear, supportive messages. Done well, they can transform fear into motivation and encourage participation. Relief, hope, and empowerment especially when reinforced by positive campaigns can strongly encourage screening. Yet these same emotions, if misdirected, may create false reassurance. Effective interventions must balance reassurance with accurate communication about ongoing risk. ==Theoretical perspectives== '''Health belief model (HBM)''' [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ The Health Belief Model (HBM)] has long been used to explain health behaviours. Developed in the 1950s by psychologists in the United States Public Health Service (USPHS), it aimed to understand the low uptake of preventative measures such as screening (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). Today, it remains a widely applied framework for health-related decision-making. Its core constructs are: • '''Perceived susceptibility''' – belief about personal cancer risk. • '''Perceived severity''' – seriousness of cancer if undetected. • '''Perceived benefits''' – value of early detection (e.g., survival rates). • '''Perceived barriers''' – deterrents like pain, embarrassment, or stigma. • '''Self-efficacy''' – confidence in completing screening. • '''Cues to action''' – triggers such as reminders, GP advice, or campaigns. Fear and anxiety interact with these constructs. Fear can heighten susceptibility and severity, while anxiety may raise barriers through discomfort or embarrassment. In contrast, reassurance strengthens perceived benefits and builds self-efficacy. For example, a woman may weigh her fear of discomfort (barrier) against the peace of mind she expects from knowing her results (benefit).{{f}} Critics argue{{f}} HBM is overly cognitive and neglects emotions and social influences, giving it less of a “human feel.” While it cannot fully predict behaviour, it remains valuable for understanding how people approach cancer screening. '''Protection motivation theory (PMT)''' [https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/10/protection-motivation-theory/ Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)], proposed by Rogers (1975), explains health behaviour through two appraisals: threat appraisal (severity, vulnerability) and coping appraisal (response efficacy, self-efficacy, costs). Core constructs include: • '''Perceived severity''' – seriousness of the threat (e.g., cancer). • '''Perceived vulnerability''' – likelihood of being affected. • '''Response efficacy''' – belief screening reduces risk. • '''Self-efficacy''' – confidence in completing screening. • '''Response costs''' – barriers such as pain, time, or embarrassment. Fear and anxiety are central. Ruiter et al. (2001) showed fear appeals work only when coping appraisal is high. If people believe screening is effective and achievable, fear can motivate action. When coping is low, fear leads to denial, avoidance, or minimisation. A classic example is the “Grim Reaper” campaign (1987), a confronting HIV/AIDS ad in Australia. It grabbed attention but highlighted the limits of fear appeals, people who didn’t see themselves at risk ignored it, while others felt stigmatised or more afraid. From a PMT perspective, the ad created high threat appraisal but little coping appraisal, showing fear alone isn’t enough. Reviews suggest coping appraisal predicts behaviour more strongly than threat appraisal. Effective interventions must therefore combine realistic risk information with empowering, confidence-building messages. '''Theory of planned behaviour (TPB)''' [https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)] explains behaviour through attitudes (beliefs about outcomes), subjective norms (social pressure), and perceived control (confidence and resources, similar to self-efficacy) (Ajzen, 1991). Together these shape intention, which predicts behaviour. Emotions influence each factor. Fear and anxiety can create negative attitudes and avoidance, while hope and relief encourage positive attitudes. Stigma and shame act through norms, especially in communities where screening is seen as “taboo.” Empowerment strengthens control, lowering anxiety and supporting follow-through. For example, a woman may fear pain (attitude), feel cultural stigma (norms), but be reassured by an accessible home FIT kit (control). Evidence shows TPB is useful but limited. It predicts about 19–27% of health behaviour (McEachan et al., 2011), leaving an “intention–behaviour gap.” Critics argue it overlooks habits and emotions (Sniehotta et al., 2014). Recent work shows norms interact with attitudes and control (La Barbera & Ajzen, 2020, 2023).<!-- 2 years? also i think you missed this one and the Ajzen one above in your reference list --> Applications highlight its value: programs have improved screening attitudes, norms, and control when based on TPB (Huang et al., 2012). Overall, TPB highlights how attitudes, norms, and control interact with emotions in screening choices. '''Integration & comparison''' {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 2. Comparison of psychological theories and their relevance to cancer screening''' ! Model ! Key Constructs ! Role of Emotions ! Relevance to Screening |- | Health Belief Model (HBM) | Perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, self-efficacy, cues to action | Fear increases susceptibility and severity; anxiety can heighten barriers; relief strengthens perceived benefits | Explains why people weigh risks/benefits differently, leading some to avoid and others to attend screening |- | Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) | Threat appraisal (severity, vulnerability) and coping appraisal (response efficacy, self-efficacy, costs) | Fear appeals motivate only when coping appraisal is high; low efficacy leads to avoidance or denial | Shows why fear-based campaigns succeed or fail, depending on whether people believe they can act effectively |- | Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) | Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control | Emotions shape attitudes (fear vs relief), norms (stigma/shame), and control (empowerment/self-efficacy) | Captures the role of cultural stigma, empowerment, and social pressure in screening choices |} Taken together, these models provide a fuller picture of how emotions shape cancer screening behaviour. HBM highlights how people weigh personal risk against barriers. PMT explains why fear appeals succeed or backfire depending on whether people feel capable of coping. TPB adds the influence of social norms and perceived control. Together, they show that fear, anxiety, and relief can either motivate or deter action, depending on context. ==Strategies for addressing emotional barriers== '''Clear information & normalisation''' Clear, simple explanations reduce uncertainty and anxiety about screening. When people know what will happen and what results mean, the process feels less threatening. Framing screening as routine, like a dental check-up, helps normalise it and reduce stigma. By combining clarity with normalisation, screening becomes less of a fearful unknown and more of a standard habit that supports health.{{f}} '''Peer/community support''' Family, friends, and cultural groups strongly influence screening decisions. Seeing others screen, or hearing trusted stories, makes participation feel more acceptable. Shared experiences reduce embarrassment and help reshape social norms. Community programs that encourage open discussion, especially in groups where stigma is strong, show how collective support can turn screening from a private worry into a supported action.{{f}} '''Positive campaign messaging''' Campaigns framed around hope, empowerment, and reassurance often work better than fear appeals. Fear motivates only if people feel capable of acting; otherwise, it creates avoidance. Positive framing builds confidence and shows screening as a step toward peace of mind and control. By balancing risk information with encouragement, campaigns can transform screening into an empowering choice, not just a fearful obligation.{{f}} [[File:Doctor talking with a patient.jpg|thumb|right|300px]] '''Accessibility & ease''' Screening is more likely when it feels simple and convenient. Home kits, like the FIT test, allow privacy and control. Reminders texts, letters, GP prompts act as cues to action that keep it on people’s radar. Reducing costs, travel, and waiting times makes following through easier. When practical barriers are lowered, emotional ones like fear or embarrassment have less power to stop people.{{f}} '''Case study/example program''' Australia’s cervical cancer campaigns highlight how well-designed strategies work. By promoting HPV testing as safe, routine, and empowering, while making it widely accessible, participation improved. Pairing positive framing with practical supports reduced stigma and encouraged women to see screening as a normal part of protecting their health. == Quiz == <quiz display=simple shuffle=none> {Which of the following is an example of an emotional barrier to cancer screening? |type="()"} - Enjoyment of medical procedures + Fear of receiving a cancer diagnosis - Confidence in early detection programs {In the Health Belief Model, which factor refers to a person’s belief in their ability to take action? |type="()"} + Self-efficacy - Perceived severity - Social norms {Relief after receiving a clear screening result can influence behaviour by: |type="()"} + Encouraging people to attend future screenings - Making people less likely to trust doctors - Reducing the accuracy of screening tests {According to Protection Motivation Theory, fear will most likely motivate action when: |type="()"} + The person believes the recommended action will work and they can do it - The person avoids thinking about the threat - The threat is vague and the action feels difficult {Which emotion can act as both a motivator and a barrier to cancer screening? |type="()"} + Anxiety - Happiness - Anger </quiz> ==Conclusion== Fear and anxiety are double-edged, {{g}} they can motivate action but also create {{what}} avoidance. Relief, hope, and empowerment more consistently encourage {{what}} participation, especially when reinforced by supportive campaigns and accessible services. Screening behaviour is shaped by these emotions in clear ways. Fear and anxiety influence uptake by either pushing people to avoid or to act. Relief motivates screening by reducing uncertainty, though it risks false reassurance. Anxiety can serve as both a barrier and a motivator, depending on coping resources. Finally, some individuals act more quickly because confidence, social support, or cultural norms make screening feel both acceptable and achievable. Theories help explain these dynamics. The Health Belief Model highlights perceptions of risk, benefits, and barriers. Protection Motivation Theory shows how fear appeals only succeed when paired with strong coping efficacy. The Theory of Planned Behaviour captures the social side, where norms and perceived control shape intention. Together, they provide a fuller view of how emotions drive or deter screening. '''Key Takeaway''' To improve screening uptake, campaigns must not just minimise fear but reframe emotions as sources of reassurance, empowerment, and motivation for action. ==See also== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pain avoidance motivation|Pain avoidance motivation: How does avoidance of physical pain shape motivated action?]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Positive emotion and approach motivation|The motivational power of positivity:How do positive emotional states enhance goal pursuit and achievement Behaviours?]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Coping with anticipatory stress|Coping with anticipatory stress: What strategies are effective for managing stress about upcoming events?]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ahmed, N. U., Brewster, C., Chang-Martinez, C., Thomas-DeVlugt, L., & Rodriguez, A. (2022). Dignity, shame, stigma, or ignorance in avoidance of breast and cervical cancer screenings among women of Caribbean descent. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 10(5), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2022.105032 Ajzen, I. (2019). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Alyafei, A., & Easton-Carr, R. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Australian Government Department of Health. (2025). Screening for cancer. https://www.health.gov.au/topics/cancer/screening-for-cancer Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2022). BreastScreen Australia monitoring report 2022: Summary. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/breastscreen-australia-monitoring-report-2022/summary Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2025). National Bowel Cancer Screening Program monitoring report 2025: Summary. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/nbcsp-monitoring-2025/contents/summary Biardeau, X., Lam, O., Ba, V., Campeau, L., & Corcos, J. (2017). Prospective evaluation of anxiety, pain, and embarrassment associated with cystoscopy and urodynamic testing in clinical practice. Canadian Urological Association Journal, 11(3–4), 104. https://doi.org/10.5489/cuaj.4127 Cancer Treatment Centers of America. (n.d.). Stage 1 lung cancer. https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/lung-cancer/stages/stage-1-lung-cancer Conner, M., & Norman, P. (Eds.). (2015). Predicting and changing health behaviour: Research and practice with social cognition models (3rd ed.). Open University Press. Davison, B. J., & Degner, L. F. (1997). Empowerment of men newly diagnosed with prostate cancer. Cancer Nursing, 20(3), 187–196. https://journals.lww.com/cancernursingonline/fulltext/1997/06000/empowerment_of_men_newly_diagnosed_with_prostate.4.aspx Ebell, M. H., Thai, T. N., & Royalty, K. J. (2018). Cancer screening recommendations: An international comparison of high income countries. Public Health Reviews, 39, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-018-0080-0 Furedi, F. (2007). The only thing we have to fear is the ‘culture of fear’ itself: How human thought and action are being stifled by a regime of uncertainty. Spiked. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238082918 Furedi, F. (2018). How fear works: Culture of fear in the twenty-first century. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=P35ADwAAQBAJ Gressard, L., DeGroff, A. S., & Richards, T. B. (2017). A qualitative analysis of smokers’ perceptions about lung cancer screening. BMC Public Health, 17, 589. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4496-0 Huang, C. M., Chien, L. Y., Cheng, C. F., & Guo, J. L. (2012). Integrating life skills into a theory-based drug-use prevention program: Effectiveness among junior high students in Taiwan. Journal of School Health, 82(7), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2012.00706.x Isa, A., Muhamad, N. A., Mustapha, N., Abdul Mutalip, M. H., Mohd Royali, M. S., Baharin, M. F., & Sm, S. (2017). Association between self-efficacy and health behaviour in disease control: A systematic review. Global Journal of Health Science, 10(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v10n1p18 La Barbera, F., & Ajzen, I. (2020). Control interactions in the theory of planned behavior: Rethinking the role of subjective norm. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 401–417. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.2056 Marteau, T. M. (1990). Screening in practice: Reducing the psychological costs. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 301(6742), 26–28. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.301.6742.26 McEachan, R. R. C., Conner, M., Taylor, N. J., & Lawton, R. J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(2), 97–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2010.521684 National Breast Cancer Foundation. (n.d.). Breast cancer statistics. https://nbcf.org.au/about-breast-cancer/breast-cancer-stats/ National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Cervical cancer—Cancer stat facts. https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/survival National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). What screening statistics mean. https://www.cancer.gov/aboutcancer/screening/research/what-screening-statistics-mean Open Lab. (n.d.). Protection motivation theory. Newcastle University. https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/10/protection-motivation-theory/ Ruiter, R. A. C., Abraham, C., & Kok, G. (2001). Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals. Psychology & Health, 16(6), 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440108405863 Sniehotta, F. F., Presseau, J., & Araújo-Soares, V. (2014). Time to retire the theory of planned behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 8(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2013.869710 Zeliadt, S. B., Heffner, J. L., Sayre, G., et al. (2015). Attitudes and perceptions about smoking cessation in the context of lung cancer screening. JAMA Internal Medicine, 175(9), 1530–1537. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.3558 }} ==External links== • [https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cancer-screening Better Health Channel] – Cancer screening (Better Health Channel) • [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/early-detection-and-screening Cancer Council Australia] – Early detection and screening (Cancer Council Australia) • [https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/screening/research/what-screening-statistics-mean National Cancer Institute] – What screening statistics mean (National Cancer Institute) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cancer]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] bxs8zz2eehxjkhwljz865n45263bhpj 2830330 2830328 2026-09-02T00:54:28Z P U3270518 3106535 Add reference to support claim I made 2830330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cancer screening and emotion:<br>How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Diagram showing T stages of bowel cancer CRUK 276.svg|thumb|right|300px|Diagram of T-stages in bowel cancer]] ;Imagine ... You are 23 years old and notice something unusual with your body. Weeks pass, but you ignore it. Many of your symptoms match those linked to [https://www.bowelcanceraustralia.org/bowel-cancer/early-onset/ Bowel Cancer] , but that seems impossible, right? You’re only 23. Fear and anxiety take over, and you delay seeing a doctor or undergoing a screening, convincing yourself that not knowing is safer than facing the possibility of bad news. By the time you seek help, your health has deteriorated rapidly. A screening confirms bowel cancer, but it’s already at stage four. The only treatment option left is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palliative%20care palliative care]. Now, let’s rewind and change the scenario. You’re the same 23-year-old, noticing something is wrong. You still feel fear and anxiety but this time, those emotions push you to act. You want relief and don’t want to keep carrying the weight of uncertainty, so you seek answers to ease your mind. You see your doctor immediately, who recommends a cancer screening. The result is still bowel cancer, but it’s been caught early. Surgery successfully removes the tumor, and your survival chance is over 90%. These two stories show how the same emotions fear and anxiety can either prevent action and lead to devastating outcomes or motivate action and lead to life-saving results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Many people wonder, if early bowel cancer detection improves survival then why do so many people avoid screening? The truth is that cancer diagnosis isn’t just a medical decision as there are various emotions attached to it. Emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and shame can delay individual's action to screen, while relief and reassurance drive others to screen. These emotions can make cancer screening feel overwhelming, even when it’s free or accessible. Understanding these challenges helps explain why bowel cancer screening participation rates remain lower than expected and shows both the barriers and opportunities for encouraging more people to take part in life-saving cancer screening (Ireland et al., 2022). This chapter explores how emotions shape cancer screening. It begins by explaining what screening is and why early detection matters. It then examines barriers such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and stigma, alongside positive emotions like relief, hope, and empowerment. Public health campaigns are considered for their role in shaping behaviour. Finally, three psychological theories: the Health Belief Model, Protection Motivation Theory, and Theory of Planned Behaviour are applied to explain these emotional patterns and suggest strategies for improving participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How do fear and anxiety influence decisions about cancer screening uptake? * What role does relief-seeking play in motivating individuals to undergo screening? * In what ways can anxiety act as both a motivator and a barrier to screening participation? * Why are some individuals more likely than others to seek medical answers promptly? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is cancer screening?== '''Screening vs diagnosis''' Cancer screening checks for disease in people without symptoms, aiming to detect cancer early when treatment is most effective (Better Health Channel). In Australia, national programs exist for breast, cervical, bowel, and lung cancer. Screening differs from diagnosis, as screening looks for possible disease while diagnosis confirms cancer through further investigation. '''Importance of early detection''' According to the Australian Government Department of Health (2025), cancer often develops slowly and may remain symptomless until later stages, when treatment is less effective. Early detection allows intervention before spread, improving outcomes. The AIHW (2022) reports that breast cancer mortality among women aged 50–74 dropped from 74 deaths per 100,000 in 1991 to 41 in 2020 since BreastScreen Australia began, highlighting the life-saving potential of screening. It is important to note however Australia only represents a small portion of the human population. '''Examples of screening programs''' Australia offers national screening for breast, cervical, bowel, and lung cancer. Other high-income countries provide similar programs, with some differences. The UK screens for breast cancer every three years rather than two, while some US groups recommend starting at 40. Australia uses HPV testing for cervical screening, whereas many countries still use Pap smears. Bowel screening here is via mailed FIT kits, but in Germany and the US colonoscopy is common. Lung cancer screening is not routine in Australia, while the US and Canada recommend low-dose CT scans for high-risk groups. Germany and Austria also offer skin cancer screening (Ebell et al., 2018). '''Survival rates''' Early detection greatly improves survival across cancers. For lung cancer, five-year survival for stage 1 is ~64% (Cancer Treatment Centers of America, n.d.). For breast cancer, survival is close to 100% at stage 1 but only 32% at stage 4 (National Breast Cancer Foundation, n.d.). Cervical cancer survival is 91% when detected early versus 19% for distant stage (National Cancer Institute, n.d.). In bowel cancer, the AIHW (2025) reported 7,265 diagnoses and 1,793 deaths in Australians aged 50–74 during 2024, showing the impact of early detection. [[File:Lead time bias.svg|Lead_time_bias]] Figure 1. Comparison of cancer detected through screening versus symptoms, showing how earlier detection can increase perceived survival time. This earlier diagnosis may reduce anxiety and provide relief, but fear of the result can also deter some individuals from screening. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Survival rates by cancer type and stage of detection''' ! Cancer type ! Early detection survival rate ! Late detection survival rate |- | Lung (Stage 1) | 64% | Much lower in later stages |- | Breast | 100% (Stage 1) | 32% (Stage 4) |- | Cervical | 91% (early stage) | 19% (distant stage) |- | Bowel (Australia, 2024) | 7,265 diagnosed (50–74) | 1,793 deaths (50–74) |} ==Emotional barriers to screening== If survival is so much higher with early detection{{f}}, what stops people from screening? Often, it comes down to emotion. Have you ever avoided something because you feared the result? “Ignorance is bliss” captures the mindset many adopt. Avoiding stressful situations can feel easier than confronting them.{{f}} Despite the life-saving potential of screening, many avoid it due to emotional barriers. Fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and stigma can outweigh rational awareness of benefits. These barriers are shaped not only by individual psychology but also by broader cultural and social influences.{{f}} '''Fear of diagnosis''' Avoiding threats is human nature. Furedi (2007) argues a “culture of fear” encourages avoidance. In cancer screening, fear of bad news can create denial and delay. For many{{f}}, seeking help makes the issue feel more real, while ignorance feels safer. The Health Belief Model (HBM) suggests fear heightens severity and susceptibility but can also raise barriers{{f}}. A relatable example is procrastinating on an assignment: the stress of confronting it outweighs the relief of finishing it. Similarly, fear of {{what}} results can outweigh benefits of early detection{{f}}. Fear increases risk perception (“I could have cancer”) but often leads to avoidance (“I don’t want to know”). Many postpone mammograms despite knowing the risks, convincing themselves not knowing is preferable{{f}}. According to the HBM, behaviour occurs when perceived benefits outweigh barriers (Conner & Norman, 2015). In screening, fear raises awareness but also amplifies distress{{f}}. Thus, fear can motivate or paralyse, depending on threat perception and coping ability. '''Anxiety about pain, discomfort, or embarrassment''' Biardeau et al. (2017) found nearly 60% of {{what}} patients reported pain during cystoscopy{{explain}}, 41–58% anxiety, and 22–35% embarrassment. These {{g}} highlight how discomfort deters participation. In cancer screening, pain plus embarrassment from intimate procedures (Pap smears, HPV tests, colonoscopy, FIT kits) are strong deterrents{{f}}. HBM explains this as barriers outweighing benefits, while PMT suggests high threat plus low coping appraisal leads to avoidance. Biardeau et al. (2017) also found younger patients and those given detailed information sometimes reported higher anxiety, showing distress can stem from expectations as much as the procedure itself. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Emma, 55, avoided her free bowel kit, calling it “gross” and “awkward.” Despite family history of cancer, months later it remained unopened. Embarrassment outweighed her knowledge of benefits, showing how discomfort blocks participation. [[File:Bowel cancer Home Test Kit Instructions and test tubes in Australia, 2022.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Home bowel cancer screening kit and instructions]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Stigma and shame''' Stigma and shame, shaped by culture or religion, also deter screening{{f}}. Ahmed et al. (2022) found Caribbean women avoided breast and cervical screening due to modesty or stigma. Screenings often involve “taboo” body parts, amplifying embarrassment. Stigma intersects with identity gender, age, religion and in some communities is wrongly linked to sexual activity or “bad morals.” Though inaccurate, this belief deters participation. The TPB explains this through subjective norms: when communities see screening as shameful, this norm can override knowledge of benefits. HBM also frames shame as a barrier. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} A migrant woman avoids a Pap smear because only male GPs bulk bill in her area. Reinforced by her husband’s views, stigma and financial barriers outweigh her friends’ reassurance, so she avoids screening. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotions and motivation to screen== '''Relief-seeking''' On the positive side, many find relief in cancer screening and use it to reduce uncertainty. A normal result provides peace of mind, often motivating repeat screening and encouraging others to participate. Relief can therefore create a positive cycle{{f}}. However, relief also carries risks. Some interpret a clear result as proof they are safe, delaying follow-ups{{f}}. Marteau (1990) explained that while screening reduces psychological burden, it can also mask ongoing risk if results are misinterpreted. HBM suggests relief increases perceived benefits, but false reassurance reduces susceptibility. PMT suggests relief lowers threat appraisal if not paired with strong efficacy messages.{{f}} '''Hope, empowerment, and reassurance''' Hope, empowerment, and reassurance shape screening. Feeling in control of one’s health reduces anxiety and increases uptake{{f}}. Autonomy, like accessing screening without referral, strengthens agency. Hope can also turn fear into action. For some, fear motivates, and seeking reassurance through screening reduces uncertainty.{{f}} Health campaigns can foster empowerment by emphasising choice. Davison and Degner (1997) found participation {{vague}} reinforced feelings of control. Similarly, Affendi et al. (2018) showed self-efficacy predicts health behaviour. Confidence consistently predicts preventive action, aligning with HBM (self-efficacy) and TPB (perceived control). '''Public Health Campaigns and Framing''' Public health campaigns strongly influence screening. Positive framing that fosters hope and empowerment is often more effective than fear appeals. Fear can motivate, but only when people feel able to respond otherwise, it drives avoidance (PMT).{{f}} Gressard et al. (2017) found smokers initially knew little about lung cancer screening but showed interest when informed. However, fatalistic beliefs, distrust, and confusion limited uptake. This shows campaigns must avoid fuelling misconceptions and instead provide clear, supportive messages. Done well, they can transform fear into motivation and encourage participation. Relief, hope, and empowerment especially when reinforced by positive campaigns can strongly encourage screening. Yet these same emotions, if misdirected, may create false reassurance. Effective interventions must balance reassurance with accurate communication about ongoing risk. ==Theoretical perspectives== '''Health belief model (HBM)''' [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ The Health Belief Model (HBM)] has long been used to explain health behaviours. Developed in the 1950s by psychologists in the United States Public Health Service (USPHS), it aimed to understand the low uptake of preventative measures such as screening (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). Today, it remains a widely applied framework for health-related decision-making. Its core constructs are: • '''Perceived susceptibility''' – belief about personal cancer risk. • '''Perceived severity''' – seriousness of cancer if undetected. • '''Perceived benefits''' – value of early detection (e.g., survival rates). • '''Perceived barriers''' – deterrents like pain, embarrassment, or stigma. • '''Self-efficacy''' – confidence in completing screening. • '''Cues to action''' – triggers such as reminders, GP advice, or campaigns. Fear and anxiety interact with these constructs. Fear can heighten susceptibility and severity, while anxiety may raise barriers through discomfort or embarrassment. In contrast, reassurance strengthens perceived benefits and builds self-efficacy. For example, a woman may weigh her fear of discomfort (barrier) against the peace of mind she expects from knowing her results (benefit).{{f}} Critics argue{{f}} HBM is overly cognitive and neglects emotions and social influences, giving it less of a “human feel.” While it cannot fully predict behaviour, it remains valuable for understanding how people approach cancer screening. '''Protection motivation theory (PMT)''' [https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/10/protection-motivation-theory/ Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)], proposed by Rogers (1975), explains health behaviour through two appraisals: threat appraisal (severity, vulnerability) and coping appraisal (response efficacy, self-efficacy, costs). Core constructs include: • '''Perceived severity''' – seriousness of the threat (e.g., cancer). • '''Perceived vulnerability''' – likelihood of being affected. • '''Response efficacy''' – belief screening reduces risk. • '''Self-efficacy''' – confidence in completing screening. • '''Response costs''' – barriers such as pain, time, or embarrassment. Fear and anxiety are central. Ruiter et al. (2001) showed fear appeals work only when coping appraisal is high. If people believe screening is effective and achievable, fear can motivate action. When coping is low, fear leads to denial, avoidance, or minimisation. A classic example is the “Grim Reaper” campaign (1987), a confronting HIV/AIDS ad in Australia. It grabbed attention but highlighted the limits of fear appeals, people who didn’t see themselves at risk ignored it, while others felt stigmatised or more afraid. From a PMT perspective, the ad created high threat appraisal but little coping appraisal, showing fear alone isn’t enough. Reviews suggest coping appraisal predicts behaviour more strongly than threat appraisal. Effective interventions must therefore combine realistic risk information with empowering, confidence-building messages. '''Theory of planned behaviour (TPB)''' [https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)] explains behaviour through attitudes (beliefs about outcomes), subjective norms (social pressure), and perceived control (confidence and resources, similar to self-efficacy) (Ajzen, 1991). Together these shape intention, which predicts behaviour. Emotions influence each factor. Fear and anxiety can create negative attitudes and avoidance, while hope and relief encourage positive attitudes. Stigma and shame act through norms, especially in communities where screening is seen as “taboo.” Empowerment strengthens control, lowering anxiety and supporting follow-through. For example, a woman may fear pain (attitude), feel cultural stigma (norms), but be reassured by an accessible home FIT kit (control). Evidence shows TPB is useful but limited. It predicts about 19–27% of health behaviour (McEachan et al., 2011), leaving an “intention–behaviour gap.” Critics argue it overlooks habits and emotions (Sniehotta et al., 2014). Recent work shows norms interact with attitudes and control (La Barbera & Ajzen, 2020, 2023).<!-- 2 years? also i think you missed this one and the Ajzen one above in your reference list --> Applications highlight its value: programs have improved screening attitudes, norms, and control when based on TPB (Huang et al., 2012). Overall, TPB highlights how attitudes, norms, and control interact with emotions in screening choices. '''Integration & comparison''' {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 2. Comparison of psychological theories and their relevance to cancer screening''' ! Model ! Key Constructs ! Role of Emotions ! Relevance to Screening |- | Health Belief Model (HBM) | Perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, self-efficacy, cues to action | Fear increases susceptibility and severity; anxiety can heighten barriers; relief strengthens perceived benefits | Explains why people weigh risks/benefits differently, leading some to avoid and others to attend screening |- | Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) | Threat appraisal (severity, vulnerability) and coping appraisal (response efficacy, self-efficacy, costs) | Fear appeals motivate only when coping appraisal is high; low efficacy leads to avoidance or denial | Shows why fear-based campaigns succeed or fail, depending on whether people believe they can act effectively |- | Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) | Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control | Emotions shape attitudes (fear vs relief), norms (stigma/shame), and control (empowerment/self-efficacy) | Captures the role of cultural stigma, empowerment, and social pressure in screening choices |} Taken together, these models provide a fuller picture of how emotions shape cancer screening behaviour. HBM highlights how people weigh personal risk against barriers. PMT explains why fear appeals succeed or backfire depending on whether people feel capable of coping. TPB adds the influence of social norms and perceived control. Together, they show that fear, anxiety, and relief can either motivate or deter action, depending on context. ==Strategies for addressing emotional barriers== '''Clear information & normalisation''' Clear, simple explanations reduce uncertainty and anxiety about screening. When people know what will happen and what results mean, the process feels less threatening. Framing screening as routine, like a dental check-up, helps normalise it and reduce stigma. By combining clarity with normalisation, screening becomes less of a fearful unknown and more of a standard habit that supports health.{{f}} '''Peer/community support''' Family, friends, and cultural groups strongly influence screening decisions. Seeing others screen, or hearing trusted stories, makes participation feel more acceptable. Shared experiences reduce embarrassment and help reshape social norms. Community programs that encourage open discussion, especially in groups where stigma is strong, show how collective support can turn screening from a private worry into a supported action.{{f}} '''Positive campaign messaging''' Campaigns framed around hope, empowerment, and reassurance often work better than fear appeals. Fear motivates only if people feel capable of acting; otherwise, it creates avoidance. Positive framing builds confidence and shows screening as a step toward peace of mind and control. By balancing risk information with encouragement, campaigns can transform screening into an empowering choice, not just a fearful obligation.{{f}} [[File:Doctor talking with a patient.jpg|thumb|right|300px]] '''Accessibility & ease''' Screening is more likely when it feels simple and convenient. Home kits, like the FIT test, allow privacy and control. Reminders texts, letters, GP prompts act as cues to action that keep it on people’s radar. Reducing costs, travel, and waiting times makes following through easier. When practical barriers are lowered, emotional ones like fear or embarrassment have less power to stop people.{{f}} '''Case study/example program''' Australia’s cervical cancer campaigns highlight how well-designed strategies work. By promoting HPV testing as safe, routine, and empowering, while making it widely accessible, participation improved. Pairing positive framing with practical supports reduced stigma and encouraged women to see screening as a normal part of protecting their health. == Quiz == <quiz display=simple shuffle=none> {Which of the following is an example of an emotional barrier to cancer screening? |type="()"} - Enjoyment of medical procedures + Fear of receiving a cancer diagnosis - Confidence in early detection programs {In the Health Belief Model, which factor refers to a person’s belief in their ability to take action? |type="()"} + Self-efficacy - Perceived severity - Social norms {Relief after receiving a clear screening result can influence behaviour by: |type="()"} + Encouraging people to attend future screenings - Making people less likely to trust doctors - Reducing the accuracy of screening tests {According to Protection Motivation Theory, fear will most likely motivate action when: |type="()"} + The person believes the recommended action will work and they can do it - The person avoids thinking about the threat - The threat is vague and the action feels difficult {Which emotion can act as both a motivator and a barrier to cancer screening? |type="()"} + Anxiety - Happiness - Anger </quiz> ==Conclusion== Fear and anxiety are double-edged, {{g}} they can motivate action but also create {{what}} avoidance. Relief, hope, and empowerment more consistently encourage {{what}} participation, especially when reinforced by supportive campaigns and accessible services. Screening behaviour is shaped by these emotions in clear ways. Fear and anxiety influence uptake by either pushing people to avoid or to act. Relief motivates screening by reducing uncertainty, though it risks false reassurance. Anxiety can serve as both a barrier and a motivator, depending on coping resources. Finally, some individuals act more quickly because confidence, social support, or cultural norms make screening feel both acceptable and achievable. Theories help explain these dynamics. The Health Belief Model highlights perceptions of risk, benefits, and barriers. Protection Motivation Theory shows how fear appeals only succeed when paired with strong coping efficacy. The Theory of Planned Behaviour captures the social side, where norms and perceived control shape intention. Together, they provide a fuller view of how emotions drive or deter screening. '''Key Takeaway''' To improve screening uptake, campaigns must not just minimise fear but reframe emotions as sources of reassurance, empowerment, and motivation for action. ==See also== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pain avoidance motivation|Pain avoidance motivation: How does avoidance of physical pain shape motivated action?]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Positive emotion and approach motivation|The motivational power of positivity:How do positive emotional states enhance goal pursuit and achievement Behaviours?]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Coping with anticipatory stress|Coping with anticipatory stress: What strategies are effective for managing stress about upcoming events?]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ahmed, N. U., Brewster, C., Chang-Martinez, C., Thomas-DeVlugt, L., & Rodriguez, A. (2022). Dignity, shame, stigma, or ignorance in avoidance of breast and cervical cancer screenings among women of Caribbean descent. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 10(5), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2022.105032 Ajzen, I. (2019). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Alyafei, A., & Easton-Carr, R. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Australian Government Department of Health. (2025). Screening for cancer. https://www.health.gov.au/topics/cancer/screening-for-cancer Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2022). BreastScreen Australia monitoring report 2022: Summary. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/breastscreen-australia-monitoring-report-2022/summary Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2025). National Bowel Cancer Screening Program monitoring report 2025: Summary. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/nbcsp-monitoring-2025/contents/summary Biardeau, X., Lam, O., Ba, V., Campeau, L., & Corcos, J. (2017). Prospective evaluation of anxiety, pain, and embarrassment associated with cystoscopy and urodynamic testing in clinical practice. Canadian Urological Association Journal, 11(3–4), 104. https://doi.org/10.5489/cuaj.4127 Cancer Treatment Centers of America. (n.d.). Stage 1 lung cancer. https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/lung-cancer/stages/stage-1-lung-cancer Conner, M., & Norman, P. (Eds.). (2015). Predicting and changing health behaviour: Research and practice with social cognition models (3rd ed.). Open University Press. Davison, B. J., & Degner, L. F. (1997). Empowerment of men newly diagnosed with prostate cancer. Cancer Nursing, 20(3), 187–196. https://journals.lww.com/cancernursingonline/fulltext/1997/06000/empowerment_of_men_newly_diagnosed_with_prostate.4.aspx Ebell, M. H., Thai, T. N., & Royalty, K. J. (2018). Cancer screening recommendations: An international comparison of high income countries. Public Health Reviews, 39, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-018-0080-0 Furedi, F. (2007). The only thing we have to fear is the ‘culture of fear’ itself: How human thought and action are being stifled by a regime of uncertainty. Spiked. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238082918 Furedi, F. (2018). How fear works: Culture of fear in the twenty-first century. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=P35ADwAAQBAJ Gressard, L., DeGroff, A. S., & Richards, T. B. (2017). A qualitative analysis of smokers’ perceptions about lung cancer screening. BMC Public Health, 17, 589. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4496-0 Huang, C. M., Chien, L. Y., Cheng, C. F., & Guo, J. L. (2012). Integrating life skills into a theory-based drug-use prevention program: Effectiveness among junior high students in Taiwan. Journal of School Health, 82(7), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2012.00706.x Isa, A., Muhamad, N. A., Mustapha, N., Abdul Mutalip, M. H., Mohd Royali, M. S., Baharin, M. F., & Sm, S. (2017). Association between self-efficacy and health behaviour in disease control: A systematic review. Global Journal of Health Science, 10(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v10n1p18 Ireland, K., Hendrie, D., Ledwith, T., & Singh, A. (2022). Strategies to address barriers and improve bowel cancer screening participation in Indigenous populations, particularly in rural and remote communities: A scoping review. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 34(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.672 La Barbera, F., & Ajzen, I. (2020). Control interactions in the theory of planned behavior: Rethinking the role of subjective norm. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 401–417. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.2056 Marteau, T. M. (1990). Screening in practice: Reducing the psychological costs. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 301(6742), 26–28. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.301.6742.26 McEachan, R. R. C., Conner, M., Taylor, N. J., & Lawton, R. J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(2), 97–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2010.521684 National Breast Cancer Foundation. (n.d.). Breast cancer statistics. https://nbcf.org.au/about-breast-cancer/breast-cancer-stats/ National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Cervical cancer—Cancer stat facts. https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/survival National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). What screening statistics mean. https://www.cancer.gov/aboutcancer/screening/research/what-screening-statistics-mean Open Lab. (n.d.). Protection motivation theory. Newcastle University. https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/10/protection-motivation-theory/ Ruiter, R. A. C., Abraham, C., & Kok, G. (2001). Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals. Psychology & Health, 16(6), 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440108405863 Sniehotta, F. F., Presseau, J., & Araújo-Soares, V. (2014). Time to retire the theory of planned behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 8(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2013.869710 Zeliadt, S. B., Heffner, J. L., Sayre, G., et al. (2015). Attitudes and perceptions about smoking cessation in the context of lung cancer screening. JAMA Internal Medicine, 175(9), 1530–1537. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.3558 }} ==External links== • [https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cancer-screening Better Health Channel] – Cancer screening (Better Health Channel) • [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/early-detection-and-screening Cancer Council Australia] – Early detection and screening (Cancer Council Australia) • [https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/screening/research/what-screening-statistics-mean National Cancer Institute] – What screening statistics mean (National Cancer Institute) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cancer]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] mutxdr60db9hfxs2r4hi7cb6d771ier 0 323018 2830323 2761410 2026-09-02T00:12:59Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Factors Influencing Recovery effevtiveness{{sp}} */ Corrected spelling "effectiveness" 2830323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-control and ego depletion recovery:<br>How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Run-or-junk-food.png|thumb|Ego|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Struggling between long-term goals and short-term temptations: a classic self-control dilemma.]] ;Scenario You wake up in the morning determined to stick to your healthy eating goals. Breakfast is balanced, lunch is light but satisfying, and even when colleagues offer biscuits during the afternoon slump, you politely decline. You feel proud of yourself—disciplined, in control, and motivated. But as the day wears on, little decisions start to pile up. Choosing what tasks to prioritise at work, staying patient in traffic, biting your tongue during a frustrating conversation—all of it takes effort. By the time the evening rolls around, your mental energy feels drained. You tell yourself you’ll just relax with a cup of tea, but then you notice the block of chocolate sitting in the pantry. At first, you ignore it, distracting yourself with TV or scrolling through your phone. Yet slowly, the thought becomes louder: just one piece won’t hurt. Before you realise it, you’ve given in, the chocolate half gone. Psychologists describe this as ego depletion—the idea that self-control functions like a muscle. Each act of willpower you use during the day wears it down a little, and when that “muscle” is tired, resisting temptation becomes much harder. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-control is a central psychological resource that allows individuals to align behaviour with long-term goals and personal values (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). It is critical in: * '''Goal pursuit:''' Maintaining focus on tasks, resisting procrastination, and making choices that support long-term objectives. * '''Health and lifestyle:''' Making nutritious food choices, choosing exercise over sedentary behaviour, and avoiding impulsive habits. * '''Emotional regulation and relationships:''' Responding calmly in social situations, managing frustration, and sustaining positive interactions with others. Importantly, self-control is not unlimited. Just as physical strength can become fatigued after sustained exertion, self-control can be temporarily reduced as people face ongoing cognitive and emotional demands. This temporary reduction, known as ego depletion, makes tasks that are normally manageable—resisting unhealthy foods, staying focused, or regulating emotions—feel more challenging, often leading to less adaptive decisions (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). '''Measurement and Individual Differences:''' Psychologists study self-control and ego depletion using both behavioural tasks and self-report measures. Behavioural tasks, such as the Stroop test, assess an individual’s ability to override automatic responses, while self-report scales capture typical habits, tendencies, and perceived regulatory strength (Tangney et al., 2004). Research also highlights individual differences in self-control capacity and recovery. Factors such as beliefs about willpower, motivation, personality traits, and prior experiences can influence how quickly self-control is depleted and restored (Job, Dweck, & Walton, 2010). For example, individuals who view willpower as a renewable resource tend to recover faster and maintain better performance under stress, while those who see it as finite may experience prolonged depletion{{f}}. '''Restoring Self-Control:''' Self-control can be replenished through several strategies: * '''Rest and breaks:''' Short periods of rest or relaxation can restore cognitive resources, improving focus and persistence (Tyler & Burns, 2008). * '''Positive emotional experiences:''' Engaging in enjoyable or meaningful activities helps buffer against depletion and enhances subsequent performance (Tice, Baumeister, Shmueli, & Muraven, 2007). * '''Motivational and belief-based interventions:''' Mindsets about the significance of goals and the nature of willpower influence recovery speed and resilience (Job, Dweck, & Walton, 2010). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * What is ego depletion, and how do researchers study and measure it in both experimental and real-world contexts? * Which strategies or activities are most effective for restoring self-control when it feels depleted? * How do personal, situational, and environmental factors influence the speed and effectiveness of self-control recovery? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Self-Control? == [[File:The_self-control_cycle.png|thumb|208x208px|'''Figure 2.''' A cycle where stress challenges, recovery restores balance, and adaptation builds resilience.]] Self-control is the capacity to regulate one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviours to achieve long-term goals, even when facing competing short-term impulses (Tangney et al., 2004). It enables individuals to resist temptations, manage distractions, and make decisions that align with personal values. Far from being a single skill, self-control is a multidimensional construct, encompassing: * Impulse inhibition: Suppressing immediate urges, such as refraining from snapping in frustration. * Delay of gratification: Choosing long-term benefits over immediate rewards, like saving money rather than spending it impulsively. * Sustained attention: Maintaining focus on challenging tasks despite distractions.{{f}} In daily life, these abilities manifest in countless ways: a student setting aside their phone to concentrate on revision, someone resisting dessert while dieting, or a person approaching conflicts with patience rather than anger. Over time, these small regulatory acts accumulate, shaping long-term health, success, and relationships (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). '''Measuring Self-Control''' Psychologists study self-control using behavioural tasks and self-report scales. Behavioural tasks, such as the Stroop test, assess how effectively a person can override automatic responses or manage interference. Delay-discounting tasks examine the preference for immediate versus delayed rewards. Self-report scales, including the Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004), capture habitual tendencies like perseverance, impulse control, and resistance to temptation. Together, these methods offer a comprehensive picture of self-control across laboratory settings and real-world contexts. '''Outcomes of Self-Control''' Higher self-control is associated with better physical health, academic performance, interpersonal relationships, and emotional stability (Duckworth, 2011; Tangney et al., 2004). Conversely, low self-control predicts challenges such as addiction, financial mismanagement, and interpersonal conflict, demonstrating its central role in adaptive functioning{{f}}. == Understanding Ego Depletion == The strength model of self-control proposes that willpower functions like a finite resource, similar to a muscle that tires with repeated use (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998). Each act of self-regulation—resisting temptation, managing emotions, or making difficult choices—draws from a shared pool of mental energy. Once depleted, self-control temporarily weakens{{f}}. '''Empirical Evidence''' Classic laboratory studies support this model. For example, participants asked to resist freshly baked cookies performed worse on subsequent tasks requiring focus or persistence (Baumeister et al., 1998). These findings illustrate how regulatory fatigue can make later decisions more difficult, even if motivation remains high. However, replication studies have produced mixed results. Large-scale meta-analyses suggest that ego depletion is context-dependent, influenced by motivation, attention, beliefs about willpower, and cultural background (Carter, Kofler, Forster, & McCullough, 2015; Hagger et al., 2016). For instance, individuals who view willpower as unlimited tend to recover more quickly from fatigue, highlighting the interactive nature of depletion{{f}}. Alternative models, such as the process model of self-control (Inzlicht & Schmeichel, 2012), argue that ego depletion reflects shifts in motivation and attention rather than a strictly limited resource. This perspective suggests that regulation falters not due to “exhausted energy” but because the mind prioritises rewarding or attention-grabbing stimuli. == How Ego Depletion Affects Behaviour? == Ego depletion plays a powerful role in shaping how individuals think, feel, and act in everyday life. When self-control resources are strained or temporarily diminished, people often find it harder to regulate impulses, persist in difficult activities, or manage their emotions effectively. Research consistently shows that self-control functions like a limited resource: once drained, it leaves individuals more vulnerable to lapses in judgment, motivation, and social regulation{{f}}. Some of the most common behavioural effects of ego depletion include the following: * '''Increased impulsivity.''' When individuals are low on self-control resources, they tend to favour immediate gratification over longer-term goals. Instead of delaying rewards or making careful, rational choices, people may opt for whatever feels good in the moment. For example, after a demanding day that taxes mental energy, someone might indulge in unhealthy food or make unnecessary purchases. Vohs and Faber (2007) highlight how depleted self-control increases the likelihood of impulsive decision-making and reduced resistance to temptation. * '''Reduced persistence.''' Ego depletion also makes it more difficult for individuals to sustain effort on demanding tasks. Instead of pushing through challenges, people are more likely to give up sooner when faced with obstacles. This reduced stamina is not necessarily due to physical exhaustion but rather the weakening of mental resources required to stay focused and motivated. Baumeister and colleagues (1998) demonstrated that individuals experiencing depletion abandoned difficult problem-solving tasks much faster compared to those with intact self-control capacity. * '''Heightened emotional reactivity.''' Emotional regulation depends heavily on self-control. When this resource is depleted, people are more prone to irritability, frustration, or impatience during social interactions. Small inconveniences may trigger outsized emotional responses, and conflicts can escalate more quickly when individuals lack the mental energy to stay calm and composed. Muraven and Baumeister (2000) found that depleted individuals displayed stronger emotional reactions, suggesting that self-control plays a critical role in tempering everyday emotions and maintaining positive social relationships. These effects are evident in academic, occupational, and interpersonal settings, affecting productivity, decision-making, and relationship quality. For example, a worker managing stress at the office may be more prone to conflict at home, while a dieter resisting temptation all day may indulge in unhealthy snacks later. Depletion can also impair ethical behaviour, making individuals more susceptible to dishonesty when regulatory resources are low (Mead, Baumeister, Gino, Schweitzer, & Ariely, 2009). == Recovery Strategies: Restoring Self-Control == Although ego depletion can temporarily weaken self-control, research shows that this state is not permanent. Much like physical energy, the capacity for self-regulation can be replenished with appropriate recovery strategies. These strategies operate at multiple levels—biological, psychological, and social—helping individuals regain the ability to focus, resist impulses, and manage emotions effectively{{f}}. Below are some of the most widely studied and practical approaches to restoring self-control. * '''Rest and Sleep.''' Rest is one of the most essential recovery tools for self-control. Adequate sleep allows the brain’s executive functions—such as planning, attentional control, and inhibition—to return to optimal functioning (Pilcher & Huffcutt, 1996). A good night’s sleep supports both cognitive and emotional regulation, reducing the likelihood of impulsive or erratic behaviour. Importantly, recovery does not always require a full night of rest; short breaks throughout the day can provide mental relief as well. Even a brief pause from demanding activities helps restore attentional resources, allowing individuals to approach tasks with renewed focus and energy. * '''Positive Mood Induction.''' Emotional states play a significant role in self-control. Research indicates that positive moods can act as a buffer against depletion, enhancing motivation and resilience. Tice, Baumeister, Shmueli, and Muraven (2007) found that enjoyable activities, such as watching a humorous video, listening to uplifting music, or spending time with friends, restore the mental energy needed for self-regulation. These experiences not only improve mood but also shift attention away from stressors, creating a psychological environment where willpower can recover more quickly. * '''Physiological Factors.''' Early studies proposed that self-control was dependent on glucose, suggesting that consuming sugar could directly restore depleted willpower (Gailliot et al., 2007). While this “fueling model” initially gained attention, subsequent evidence has been mixed. Lange and Eggert (2014), for instance, questioned whether glucose intake directly replenishes self-control or whether motivational and cognitive factors are more important. Contemporary perspectives emphasise that recovery involves a complex interaction between biology and psychology—where beliefs about willpower, attentional focus, and intrinsic motivation play just as significant a role as physiological resources. Restoring self-control is not about a single solution but rather a combination of rest, emotional renewal, and physiological regulation. By addressing both the mind and the body, individuals can recover from ego depletion and return to more effective decision-making, persistence, and emotional regulation. '''Table 1: Summary of Ego Depletion Recovery Strategies''' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Mechanism !Example Application |- |Rest/Sleep |Cognitive restoration, prefrontal recovery |Short nap or relaxation break |- |Positive Affect |Motivational boost, attention broadening |Listening to music or socializing |- |Mindfulness/Meditation |Attention regulation, impulse control |10-minute meditation before tasks |- |Implementation Intentions |Automatic goal-directed behaviour |“If-then” planning for temptations |- |Motivation Enhancement |Reframing tasks as meaningful |Linking study to career goals |} == Factors Influencing Recovery effectiveness{{sp}} == Recovery from ego depletion is not a uniform process. Just as some people recover quickly after physical exertion while others take longer, individuals differ in how effectively and how rapidly they can restore self-control resources. This process is shaped by a combination of personal characteristics and environmental conditions. Understanding these influences is important because it highlights that recovery is not automatic—it can be supported or hindered depending on mindset, context, and coping strategies. The following key factors influence the effectiveness of recovery: * '''Motivation and Beliefs About Willpower.''' One of the most significant individual differences involves how people ''perceive'' willpower itself. Research by Job, Dweck, and Walton (2010) demonstrates that individuals who view willpower as a strictly limited resource—something that can “run out”—are more likely to experience prolonged depletion. In contrast, those who believe willpower is non-limited or even renewable tend to recover more quickly and show fewer declines in performance after demanding tasks. ''Example:'' Imagine two students preparing for an exam. One believes that studying too long drains their energy, and as a result, they stop working sooner. The other views effort as something that fuels persistence, and they continue studying with greater stamina. This difference illustrates how mindset shapes recovery and resilience. * '''Contextual and Environmental Factors.''' The environment in which recovery occurs plays a major role in determining how effective it will be. Stressful conditions, high task difficulty, or constant time pressures can prolong the recovery process because the individual’s regulatory demands never truly pause. By contrast, recovery is more efficient in environments that allow for rest, flexible pacing, and opportunities for relaxation. ''Example:'' An employee under constant deadlines may continue to feel depleted even after a break, while another working in a supportive environment with structured downtime may find their self-control restored more easily. This shows that recovery depends not only on the individual but also on the broader context in which they operate. * '''Self-Compassion.''' Another factor influencing recovery is the degree of self-kindness individuals practice when they face setbacks. Vohs, Baumeister, and Schmeichel (2013) found that self-compassion helps buffer against the negative effects of depletion. Instead of responding to lapses in self-control with harsh self-criticism, self-compassionate individuals acknowledge the difficulty of the situation and recommit without excessive guilt. This preserves psychological energy and allows for more effective recovery. ''Example:'' A worker who misses a deadline but responds with self-compassion (“I’ll try again tomorrow, and that’s okay”) is more likely to regain energy and motivation than someone who berates themselves (“I always fail; I’ll never get this right”). Recovery from ego depletion depends on personal beliefs, life demands, and the strategies we use to cope. By keeping a flexible mindset, surrounding ourselves with support, and practising self-compassion, we can make recovery easier. Resilience in self-control is less about holding on to limited energy and more about how well we restore it. == Application in daily Life == Understanding how self-control and ego depletion function is not only relevant for psychological research but also highly applicable to daily living. By applying insights from this field, individuals can enhance productivity, strengthen decision-making, and safeguard long-term well-being—even in the face of demanding circumstances. The following strategies illustrate how knowledge of self-control mechanisms can be translated into everyday practice. * '''Scheduling High-Demand Tasks During Peak Self-Control Periods.''' Self-control does not remain constant throughout the day; instead, it fluctuates based on rest, recovery, and prior exertion. Research suggests that self-regulatory capacity is often strongest in the morning, following sleep and mental restoration (Baumeister et al., 1998). Scheduling challenging tasks—such as writing a report, studying for an exam, or engaging in a difficult negotiation—during these peak periods can reduce the likelihood of errors, fatigue, or impulsive choices. For instance, a student may complete complex assignments early in the day rather than postponing them until evening, when focus and willpower are typically diminished. * '''Taking Short, Frequent Breaks to Sustain Self-Control.''' Continuous mental effort depletes regulatory resources, much like prolonged physical exercise wears down muscles. However, brief breaks can serve as opportunities for recovery, restoring attention and self-control. Pilcher and Huffcutt (1996) demonstrated that short periods of rest or light activity can significantly improve cognitive performance. Simple strategies—such as stretching, walking, or engaging in a brief enjoyable task—help replenish resources and reduce the risk of depletion-related lapses, including procrastination, irritability, or impulsive eating. Integrating these pauses into daily routines allows individuals to sustain focus over longer periods without overtaxing their regulatory capacity. * '''Building Self-Control Through Practice and Training.''' Like physical strength, self-control can be improved through consistent practice. Small, deliberate exercises that require regulation—such as resisting minor temptations, practising mindfulness, or adhering to consistent routines—help to gradually increase regulatory stamina (Tice, Baumeister, Shmueli, & Muraven, 2007). Over time, these efforts make self-control more efficient and less effortful, thereby reducing vulnerability to depletion. For example, consistently opting for healthier snacks or committing to daily mindfulness practice can build resilience that carries over into more challenging contexts, such as high-pressure work or academic performance. Self-control isn’t fixed—it’s a skill we can build and use in daily life. By planning challenging tasks wisely, taking regular breaks, and practising self-regulation, people can boost performance while protecting their well-being. Ego depletion research shows its value not just in theory, but in the real challenges of work, study, and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Case study Emma is a university student preparing for her final exams. She spends the morning diligently studying, resisting the constant urge to check her phone or scroll through social media. By the afternoon, however, she finds herself overwhelmed and mentally fatigued. Despite intending to continue revising in the evening, she ends up binge-watching TV shows instead. Emma’s behaviour illustrates how prolonged acts of self-control can temporarily deplete willpower, making it difficult to maintain focus on long-term goals. '''Guiding Questions''' * Which part of the self-control cycle is Emma experiencing? Consider the stages of exertion, depletion, and recovery. * Which recovery strategies might help her restore self-control and resume productive study? Reflect on both psychological (e.g., positive mood, self-compassion) and practical strategies (e.g., breaks, scheduling tasks). * How might individual beliefs about willpower influence Emma’s ability to regain focus? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {Which phenomenon is Emma most likely experiencing? |type="()"} + Ego depletion - Mindfulness - Flow {Which strategy could help Emma restore her self-control effectively? |type="()"} + Taking a short walk or engaging in a pleasurable, low-effort activity - Ignoring her fatigue and continuing to push through without a break - Binge-watching TV until she feels motivated again {Which factor can influence the speed and effectiveness of Emma’s recovery? |type="()"} + Her beliefs about the limits of willpower - The total number of hours she has studied - The time of year or season </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Self-control is a core psychological skill that supports goal-directed behaviour, healthy habits, and adaptive decision-making. As the concept of ego depletion shows, this resource is limited: repeated acts of regulation or demanding choices can temporarily drain willpower. Importantly, depletion is short-lived, highlighting the value of intentional recovery rather than self-blame. Research identifies several strategies for restoring self-control. Rest and sleep replenish the body and brain, while short breaks and positive emotions provide quick boosts. Beliefs about the renewability of willpower also matter—individuals who see self-control as a non-limited resource recover faster. Practices such as mindfulness and self-compassion not only aid recovery but also build resilience, reducing vulnerability to fatigue during demanding tasks. These strategies are not universally effective; recovery depends on individual differences, context, and task demands. Recognising personal patterns of fatigue and scheduling restorative practices can help optimise effort and decision-making.The central “golden nugget” is that self-control operates like a muscle: it can tire, but also strengthen and recover with use and care. The message is both cautionary and hopeful—while self-control is finite in the moment, it can be renewed. With awareness and deliberate strategies, people can sustain performance, pursue long-term goals, and face challenges with greater resilience. '''Practical Takeaways:''' * Recovery strategies such as short breaks, positive social interaction, and self-compassion can help replenish regulatory resources. * Beliefs about willpower—whether it is seen as limited or renewable—shape how quickly individuals can recover from depletion. * Applying knowledge of ego depletion to everyday contexts, like study habits, diet, or workplace tasks, enables more sustainable self-regulation and better long-term outcomes. == See also == * [[Wikipedia: Ego depletion]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1252–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252 Carter, E. C., Kofler, L. M., Forster, D. E., & McCullough, M. E. (2015). A series of meta-analytic tests of the depletion effect: Self-control does not seem to rely on a limited resource. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(4), 796–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000083 Duckworth, A. L. (2011). The significance of self-control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(Suppl. 3), 2639–2640. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1019725108 Gailliot, M. T., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Maner, J. K., Plant, E. A., Tice, D. M., Brewer, L. E., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.325 Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Alberts, H., Anggono, C. O., Batailler, C., Birt, A. R., … Zwienenberg, M. (2016). A multi-lab pre-registered replication of the ego-depletion effect. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(4), 546–573. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616652873 Inzlicht, M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 450–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612454134 Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion—Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1686–1693. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610384745 Lange, F., & Eggert, F. (2014). Sweet delusion: Glucose drinks fail to counteract ego depletion. Appetite, 75, 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2013.12.020 Mead, N. L., Baumeister, R. F., Gino, F., Schweitzer, M. E., & Ariely, D. (2009). Too tired to tell the truth: Self-control resource depletion and dishonesty. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(3), 594–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.004 Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2658056 Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.247 Pilcher, J. J., & Huffcutt, A. I. (1996). Effects of sleep deprivation on performance: A meta-analysis. Sleep, 19(4), 318–326. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/19.4.318 Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72(2), 271–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x Tice, D. M., Baumeister, R. F., Shmueli, D., & Muraven, M. (2007). Restoring the self: Positive affect helps improve self-regulation following ego depletion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(3), 379–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.007 Tyler, J. M., & Burns, K. C. (2008). After depletion: The replenishment of the self’s regulatory resources. Self and Identity, 7(3), 305–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860701799997 Vohs, K. D., & Faber, R. J. (2007). Spent resources: Self-regulatory resource availability affects impulse buying. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(4), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1086/510228 Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2013). Motivation, personal beliefs, and limited resources all contribute to self-control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(1), 184–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.08.007 }} ==External links== * [https://dictionary.apa.org/self-control Self-control] * [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-16843-000 Willpower: Rediscovering the greatest human strength.] * [https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Q24sDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA42&dq=Baumeister+on+ego+depletion+research&ots=mGTJpra-uZ&sig=08gfOJ-2Jn_1w2gGr4R97MwYzI4#v=onepage&q=Baumeister%20on%20ego%20depletion%20research&f=false Self-Control and Ego Depletion] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Ego depletion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-control]] nyadu5av01vp9q6xbw399ek5mkaxrdy 0 323153 2830360 2830148 2026-09-02T03:09:46Z Safiaah 3110224 /* Emotion */ 2830360 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? 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{{ME-By|Chloebateup}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does it affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|Ella234567}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How does unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|Charlie.henderson1}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|JessJ117}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Amyuniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|U3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|U3280159}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|U3243776}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] - How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|Diaz Chas}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|Safiaah}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3239251}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? - [[User:U3275873|u3275873]] # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Perfectionism and athlete mental health/]] - How does perfectionism affect athlete mental health? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders/]] - How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating eating disorders? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|GU3281277}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Pinkk47}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|U3253354}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? - U3284437 # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|U3306498}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|u3348724}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] - How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? - User Name # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|Karabi Tasneem}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|Med.011387}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] a3btahlqueejlnozcikcqe4vpaykqef 2830386 2830360 2026-09-02T04:46:39Z Safiaah 3110224 /* Emotion */ 2830386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury/]] - How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport? {{ME-By|Tammysaurus}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|U3175512}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|Zozo}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|Vivekidid}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Kelp14}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|Sarah Hagan06}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|Ayat Al-kabai}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation/|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] - What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] - What is the extended process model and how does it explain the regulation of emotions in different contexts? {{ME-By|TheHutt02}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|WonderfulKitten3}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|U3297598}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? - User Name # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] - How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|Anne-Lyse Iran}} # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|BellaJohnson1}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|Gracelp}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? {{ME-By|U3284308}} # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3203283}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? {{ME-By|U3261207}} # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|U3274291}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? {{ME-By|U3275908}} # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|U3262868}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Sleep deprivation, motivation, and academic performance/|Sleep deprivation, motivation, and academic performance]] - How does sleep deprivation affect motivation, attention, and academic performance in university students? {{ME-By|RileyRuckus}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|Chloebateup}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does it affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|Ella234567}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How does unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|Charlie.henderson1}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|JessJ117}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Amyuniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|U3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|U3280159}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|U3243776}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] - How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|Diaz Chas}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|Safiaah}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3239251}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? - [[User:U3275873|u3275873]] # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Perfectionism and athlete mental health/]] - How does perfectionism affect athlete mental health? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders/]] - How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating eating disorders? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|GU3281277}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Pinkk47}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|U3253354}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|Safiaah}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? - U3284437 # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|U3306498}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|u3348724}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] - How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? - User Name # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|Karabi Tasneem}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|Med.011387}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] iqn9vf0x8205wmgpjskx3jllufpeffh 0 324226 2830325 2825545 2026-09-02T00:19:42Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ Tried to make sentence grammatically more better 2830325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Grit and academic achievement <br>What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students?}} == <big>Overview</big> == {{robelbox|theme=7|title=Case study: Nikil|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} [[File:Case_study_magnifying_glass.png|left|340px|Looking closer at the case study! ]] Nikil is a 21-year-old medical student in India who is a high-achieving student. He is the first in his family to attend a university. His family emphasizes that his success will bring honor and pride to his parents and community. He feels a great need to excel to repay his parents’ sacrifices and make use of his opportunity to gain higher socio-economic status. He often studies late into the night and skips meals, not because becoming a doctor is something he enjoys, but because he is afraid of disappointment and failure. He often ruminates heavily on his mistakes, compares his grades to others and has anxiety before exams. He often feels he must excel to be accepted. He began to find it hard to maintain a 97% average which he had throughout high school into university. {{gr}} Nikhil's current lifestyle left him feeling empty and fatigued, with decreased interest and creativity. Additionally, he overcriticized himself for not being perfect and it affected how he felt about himself. As he talked with his parent{{gr}} about how he was feeling, they responded by truly finding out why he wanted to become a doctor, and that is exactly what he did. During his hospital rotation, he realized his skills of empathy but being logical and making a lasting impact on his client gave him immense satisfaction; he realised this is truly his career path. Once realising this, his studies became much more enjoyable; he was able to persist, commit, and manage and develop healthy coping strategies. Overall helping him to go on to become a successful graduate. This case study shows Nikil is someone who has grit, particularly persistence on effort but through support from his family and his own personal interest in being a doctor helped to reinvigorate his passion and commitment to becoming a doctor.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Students around the world are faced with new challenges, setbacks, dissapointments{{sp}} and difficulties everyday. These setbacks can be especially challenging during the early educational years, when career sucess{{sp}} is predicated on academic performance. A recent example of a setback faced by students everywhere is the [[COVID-19|Coronavirus (Covid-19) Pandemic]] and the emergence of [[wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence_in_education|AI learning tools.]] This caused students, teachers and scientists around the globe to persevere against systemic-level disruptions by adaping{{sp}} and developing innovative ways to connect, learn, improve and retain knowledge in order to facillitate{{sp}} academic achievement. Some students found these challenges especially difficult leading them to disengage and drop out, but others like Nikhil (who we will talk about) persisted and eventually found success. This begs the question: is academic achievement based solely on your [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]] score, talent, [[Psychological resilience|resilience]] or perhaps you need some good old, hard work? This exact question led author and psychologist [https://angeladuckworth.com/ Angela Duckworth] to popularise the term "[[wikipedia:Grit_(personality_trait)|grit]]", suggesting persistence interest and sustained effort paved the way for success as opposed to talent or skills alone. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is grit? * How does grit influence academic achievement? * What psychological theories explain grit? * What does the empirical evidence say about grit? Any critiques? * Can grit be fostered and if so, how can it be applied? '''Reflection:''' '''Think of a time when you faced a major academic or life challenge. What factors or setbacks helped or hindered your ability to continue during the challenging situation?''' {{RoundBoxBottom}} Throughout the chapter, refering{{sp}} back to this case study of Nikil below to help consolidate your learning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] '''Key concepts:''' *Grit *Academic Achievement * Persistence * Interest *Intelligence *Consciousness *Self-regulation {{RoundBoxBottom}} == <big>Grit</big> == [[File:Marathon runner.png|thumb|289x289px|A middle-aged man showing his perseverance and passion towards achieving his goal of winning a marathon.]] Grit is often regarded as a conceptual topic without a definitive definition or measure, in order to quantify, measure and understand what laypeople and scientists regard grit to be lets look at a few sources which ain to define grit. === <u><big>Defining grit</big></u> === The word "grit" originates from the German word ''"[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/griess Griess],"'' which according to the [[mwod:grit|Merriam-Webster dictionary]], means "grit". Furthermore the dictionary defintion for a person with grit is explained as two qualities: firmness of mind or spirit and unyielding courage in the face of hardship or danger. Otherwise, as a person with courage and is adapt to grinding, setbacks, or hardships through the firmness of their mind. Although this is the dictionary definition, the psychological definition is slightly different. [[wikipedia:Angela_Duckworth|Angela Lee Duckworth]] and colleagues popularised "grit," to be simply defined as a personality trait of an individual who [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/persevere\ perseveres] and has a [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/passion passion] for their long-term [[Goal setting|goals]] (Lam & Zhou, 2019; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Tugabirwe & Rukundo, 2024; Jiang et al., 2019 ) [[File:Girl climbing mountain.png|thumb|256x256px|A girl through passion and perseverance, is climbing difficult and challenging mountain to achieve her long-term goal of climbing to the summit{{ic|how does this relate to academic achievement?}}]] <blockquote> ''"Grit is passion and perseverance for long-term goals.'' ''One way to think about grit is to consider what grit isn’t. Grit isn’t talent.'' ''Grit isn’t luck. Grit isn’t how intensely, for the moment, you want something.'' ''Instead, grit is about having what some researchers call an "ultimate concern”–a goal you care about so much that it organizes and gives meaning to almost everything you do. And grit is holding steadfast to that goal. Even when you fall down. Even when you screw up. Even when progress toward that goal is halting or slow.'' ''Talent and luck matter to success. But talent and luck are no guarantee of grit. And in the very long run, I think grit may matter as least as much, if not more."'' [https://angeladuckworth.com/qa/#faq-125 ''━'' ''Angela Duckworth'']</blockquote> The definition used by the American Psychological Association is, <blockquote>''"n. a personality trait characterized by perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals. Grit entails working strenuously to overcome challenges and maintaining effort and interest over time despite failures, adversities, and plateaus in progress. Recent studies suggest this trait may be more relevant than intelligence in determining a person’s high achievement. For example, grit may be particularly important to accomplishing an especially complex task when there is a strong temptation to give up altogether."'' [https://dictionary.apa.org/grit ''━'' ''APA 2018'']</blockquote> === <u><big>Characterising grit</big></u> === [[File:Elderly + award.png|thumb|283x283px|A person, despite age {{g}} achieved an award through their grit.]] Grit is characterised as a hierarchical, non-cognitive dispositional or personality trait which means, an enduring characteristic and behaviours employed by the individual to uniquely adjust to life across different situations (APA, 2018; Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020; Clark, Dorio, Eldridge, Malecki & Demaray, 2020; Clark & Malecki, 2019; He et al., 2021; Helal & Hassan 2025; Lam & Zhou, 2019; Lee & Sohn, 2017; Singh & Chukkali, 2021). A gritty individual works tirelessly towards challenges, maintains effort, interest and stamina over extended periods despite failures, advesities and plateus (He et al., 2021; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Tugabirwe & Rukundo, 2024). Grit is a malleable construct which can be learned and developed through coping skills and self-cultivation, social support, training, experiences and practicing endurance similar to how you would develop your muscles in the gym (Duckworth et al., 2007; Harpaz, Vaizman & Yaffe, 2024; Singh & Chukkali, 2021; Jiang et al., 2019 ). Specifically, Grit encompasses goal-directness, persistence, passion and commitment. According to a 2020 study there is a moderate positive correlation between grit and older participants (Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020). Perhaps, due to the increase time to experience different situations and circumstances could be accredited to why older people tend to have higher grit levels. This could also be a contributing reason as to why postgraduate students in the same study had a higher overall mean in academic score of 78.2 (SD of 10.0) compared to the undergraduate students (overall mean of 72.9, SD of 9.6) (Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020). ==== <big>2 Facet of grit</big> ==== [[File:Mollusk, shells and fossils prize winner.png|thumb|224x224px|A fossil hunter holding their winning ammonite fossil earned through his lifelong passion and commitment to finding, and refurbishing pieces of fossil history.]]Perseverance of effort (PE) is the ability to sustain energy and towards long term goals involving high mental stamina by overcoming adversities and distractions through sustained effort to accomplish a goal (Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Jiang et al., 2019 ; Wolters & Hussain, 2015). Oftentimes, PE is compared to qualities of [[wikipedia:Conscientiousness|conscientiousness]] from the big five personality theory because of the overlapping themes of being responsible, diligent and goal-oriented (O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007). Consistency of interest (CI) is ability to adhere and maintain focus to goals which the idividual is passionate and accredits meaning and purpose towards for long periods to sustain their ultimate final long term goal( Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Jiang et al., 2019 ). For example, an ultimate final goal could be completing an undergraduate degree with a high distinction. === <big><u>Measures of grit</u></big> === There are multiple scales which have been used to quanitify grit. These incluse the Original Grit scale, Short Grit scale, Triarchic model of grit scale, Multi-dimensional grit scale and the Academic grit scale. ===== Original grit scale (Grit-O) ===== [[File:Psychological Survey.png|thumb|292x292px|Psychological self-report survey measure ]] As the name suggests this is the original first developed grit scale by Duckworth and collegues, asking demographic questions, the individual's level of academic performance satisfaction compared to their actual academic score (Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020). Nowadays this scale is commonly used. ===== Short grit scale (Grit-S) ===== The Short Grit Scale is an improved, model fit and overall a better measurement tool inspired by the Grit-O. This is currently the most used grit scale in wester and individualist countries. It is a twelve item two factor hierachical scale maximized by the particular items which were most correlated in accordance with factor analysis. ===== Triarchic model of grit scale ===== The triachic model of grit by Datu and collegues in 2017 expanded upon the 2 factor hierachical structure and introduced the facet of situational adaptability, which gain acclaim. ===== Multi-dimensional scale of grit ===== With the growing need for cultural inclusion and generalisability with research the Multi-Dimensional Scale of Grit (MDSG) was designed by Singh and Chukkali in 2021 to allow the concept of grit to traverse the global scale and be more accessible to non-western and individualistic communities (Singh & Chukkali, 2021). This 12 item Likert scale measure, particularly designed to be applicable to collectivist, religious and eastern countries where through religious and ancient literature have identifies similar elements such as “gumption" and “titiksha” from Hindu holy books; yang in Taoist principles; “dukkha” from Buddhist literature and the Islamic perspectives’ emphasis on strength of character, constancy, steadfastness, work devotion determination (Singh & Chukkali, 2021). Overall the scale tends to have good internal consistency, reliability, criterion and divergent validity, but more studies need to conducted to corroborate its generalizability with the wider community due to the gender, age and university humanity and social science focus (Singh & Chukkali, 2021). ==== Academic grit scale (AGS) ==== Finally, the concept of domain-specific grit was explore through the academic grit scale. This scale has 10 items focusing on determination, resilience, and focus in the pursuit of challenging long-term goals within education (Clark & Malecki, 2019). [[File:Glossary icon.jpg|centre|93x93px|'''<u>Glossary</u>''' ]] '''Table 1.''' The 2 x 7 on the definition and theory adjasent to grit x key theoretical terms. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+<big>Key terms often associated with grit:</big> !Key term !Definition !Theory |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/lockes-theory-of-goal-setting Long-term goal oriented:] | * ''a'' ''person' who focused on the process of establishing specific, time-based behavior targets that are measurable, achievable, and realistic. Goal setting is effective only if the individual's are aware of what needs to be accomplished and accept the goal themselves and believe in their attainability.'' |According to Locke theory of goal setting, specifies specific, challenging, sub-goals are better for performance to regulate energy expenditure, improve persistence, skill development with timely feedback on progression are pivotal to attaining long term goals, such as academic achievement. Also in accordance with self-determination theory a individual is moer{{sp}} likely to achieve their long term goals if he motivation behind their drive is intrinsic to satidy their psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Furthermore, expectancy-value theory suggests a persons effort, persistence and choices are determined by the person self-efficacy to attain goal (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This allows the individual to foster a growth mindset where their belief in their abilities help them to self-regulate, make informed choices and dedicate themselves to their goal (Deci & Ryan, 2000). |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/passion Passionate]: | *''an intense, driving, or overwhelming feeling or conviction. Passion is often contrasted with emotion, in that passion affects a person unwillingly.'' *''a strong enthusiasm for or devotion to an activity, object, concept, or the like.'' |According to self-determination theory, there are two types of passion: harmonious which is the healthy form compared to the maladaptive form called obsessive (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Harmonius{{sp}} passion allows for flexibility and immersive enagement{{sp}} whereas obsessive passion can be rigid and impersonal Deci & Ryan, 2000). |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/persistence Perseverance/Persistence:] [https://dictionary.apa.org/effortfulness Effortfulness] | * ''Continuance or repetition of a particular behavior, process, or activity despite cessation of the initiating stimulus.'' * ''The quality or state of maintaining a course of action or keeping at a task and finishing it despite the obstacles (such as opposition or discouragement) or the effort involved.'' * ''exertion that demands attentional and other cognitive resources: a feature of many psychological tasks that can be judged reliably by participants.'' |According to Cloninger’s seven factor psychobiological model of personality expand further on persistence as the tendency to continue a task or activity regardless of frustration, dissatisfaction, or fatigue. According to SDT the psychological needs to be competence, related and sutonomous can increase the volition of the peron to strive in their activities (Deci & Ryan, 2000). |- |[https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/edu0000699 Academic achievement] | * ''any identifiable success in the areas of scholarship or disciplined study.'' * ''in educational psychology, a level of proficiency in scholastic work in general or in a specific skill, such as arithmetic or reading. Evidence of future academic achievement is usually based on the results of standardized ability tests and assessment of performance by a teacher or other supervisor.'' |Achievement goal theory talks about there are 4 major categories of goals: approach or avoidant mastery of skills and understanding and approach or avoidant performance or competive{{sPP and peer validation based goals. the avoidant types of goals tend to have negative affect, drive and self-worth outcomes (Harwood & Thrower, 2020). |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/interest Interest:] | * ''an attitude characterized by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area.'' | |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/resilience Resilience:] | *''the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences, especially through mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility and adjustment to external and internal demands.'' * ''A number of factors contribute to how well people adapt to adversities, predominant among them (a) the ways in which individuals view and engage with the world, (b) the availability and quality of social resources, and (c) specific coping strategies. Psychological research demonstrates that the resources and skills associated with more positive adaptation (i.e., greater resilience) can be cultivated and practiced.'' | |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/intelligence Intelligence] | * ''the ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason.'' | |} == Grit & academic achievement: == The association between grit and academic achievement using the measure discussed earlier try to empircally understand and predict success in academic settings. ==== <big>Foundational studies</big> ==== Foundational studies by Duckworth and colleagues tried to predict success through academic engagement, self-efficacy, educational graduation, retention rates and Grade point averages over time (Wen et al., 2019 cited from Duckworth et al., 2007). Throughout the years two types of grit was identified. ===== General Grit ===== * An overarching dispositional trait where attitudes and behaviors stay consistent across different contexts (Clark & Malecki, 2019). ===== Domain-specific Grit ===== * Grit-based attitudes and behaviors are only displayed when in a certain contexts or condition (Clark & Malecki, 2019). * For example, Academic grit is when a person shows grit during educational pursuits. Overall domain-specific grit has shown a better predictor of academic achievement than general grit. (Clark & Malecki, 2019). ==== <big>Recent studies</big> ==== Although foundational studies highlighted a high correlation between grit and academic achievement, especially amongst primary to college students, the current data suggest differently.{{f}} [[File:Contradicting research data plots.png|thumb|240x240px|Contradicting research data plots from different research articles]] A 2019 meta-analysis of suggested the correlation between grit and academic achievement was small but significant with the mean coefficient of 0.16 (95% CI: 0.14, 0.18 Z=15.95, p < .001) and mean average correlation of overall grit is 0.17 (Lam & Zhou, 2019). Similarly a more recent 2022 meta-analysis suggested the overall grit level to academic achievement was weak to moderate (weighted correlation = 0.19). They also found, the effect size is similar to conscientiousness (r = .19) and subjective well-being (r = .16). The total estimated average weighted average of grit overall was 0.24 (95% CI: 0.213, 0.261) (Lam & Zhou, 2019). In accordance with longitudinal studies, they seem to support a reciprocal relationship of PE and academic achievement being mutually reinforcing to each other (Wen et al., 2019). This means PE predicts achievement and prior achievement contributes to PE’s development. Overall, PE has been discovered to be a better predictor for academic success than CI especially in standardised measures like the gpa and similar school grades systems (Lam & Zhou, 2022). Many studies consistently show PE has higher correlations and reforcing relationship (r=0.21; R²=2.3%; r= 0.508; r=0.425) to academic success whereas, CI has a weaker predictive and correlation to academic success (Clark, Dorio, Eldridge, Malecki & Demaray, 2020; Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lam & Zhou, 2022; Jiang et al., 2019 ). Also, a two-factor hierarchical structure in the AGS scale validation studies with samples from high-achieving adolescents, the national spelling bee child and adolescent finalists, Ivy League undergraduates, and West Point cadets showed to have strong internal consistency, test-retest reliability, consensual validity and high predictive validity (Clark & Malecki, 2019). There is also evidence to suggest grit is a better predictor of academic achievement in kindergarden to year 12 students (r=0.17) comparatively to university students (r=0.14)(Lam & Zhou, 2019; Lam & Zhou, 2022). ==== <big>Critiques:</big> ==== {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. The 2 x 16 on the Strengths and Weaknesses of Grit x Theory Efficacy ! !Strengths !Limitations !Sources |- |'''Scope''' |Domain-specific |Overlaps with Consciousness |Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Jiang, et al., 2019). ----(Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Lam & Zhao, 2022; Martoyo & Lindawati, 2023; Rimfeld, Kovas, Dale & Plomin, 2016). |- |'''Predictive power''' |Validity (incremental, can build upon itself) |Weak Consistency of Interest |(Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Harpaz, Vaizman & Yaffe, 2024). ----(Abubakar, et al., 2021; Jiang, et al., 2019; Lam & Zhao 2022) |- |'''New perspective''' |Non cognitive focus (included cultural backgrounds) |Method issues with reliability and correlation |(Jiang, et al., 2019; Singh & Chukkali, 2021) ----(Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Clark, Dorio, Eldridge, Malecki, & Demaray, 2020; Jiang, et al., 2019; Lam & Zhou, 2019; Tannoubi et al., 2023). |} All of these contradictions and critiques makes it difficult to determine whether grit is the sole influencer of academic success as once believed. == Alternative academic success influences == As an alternative to thinking grit is sole contributing factors to academic success, let us, think more broadly. ===== Cognitive Ability (IQ) ===== Grit is distinct from cognitive ability/IQ. Grit has been shown{{f}} to outperform IQ as a predictor of academic achievement in samples of high-achieving students. Although grit is a better predictor of academic success in high achieving samples; student samples of lower end of the IQ spectrum, from poor socioeconomic status has suggested different results (Lee & Sohn, 2017; Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025; Tugabirwe & Rukundo, 2024). In a 2021 study looking at disadvantaged rural students, grit had an insignificant effect on school achievement for those with an IQ of 0.85 (Jiang, et al., 2019). A 2025 study suggested, grit could moderately influence cognitive abilities towards high educational achievement. It said stem high school student with high levels of cognitive abilities were statistically significant (β = 0.14, SE = 0.03, t(640) = 5.08, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.09, 0.19]) suggesting 34.58% of variance in STEM (physics, computer science, achievement interaction between cognition and grit to strongly predict highschool success (Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025){{rewrite}}. Surprisingly, this study suggested a greater association between CI (r = 0.10 to 0.15 (p < 0.05) as opposed to PE (r = 0.08, p = 0.046) as previous studies suggested helping them to bridge gaps which would otherwise affect performance (Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025). Another study looking at Indonesian students and GPA also found similar results (1.4% - 6.3%) and grit scores seemed to increase as they progressed through school from first to second to third year (Martoyo & Lindawati, 2023). As well as, students with extremely high levels of cognition showed slightly lower levels of grit compared to student with high cognition (Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025){{g}}. ===== Deliberate practice ===== Deliberate practice ($r = .19, p < .01$) and conscientiousness ($r = .21, p < .01$) in korean college students correlated positively with GPA, this highlighted the grit did not have a direct effect but mediatory one to achievement in academics (Lee & Sohn, 2017). ===== Self-regulated learning ===== Self-regulated learning suggests a consistent association of PE with self-efficacy, cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, time and study environment management strategies, and procrastination and CI with study environment management strategies, and procrastination, with only PE showing any improvement to academic achievement through regression analysis (Wolters & Hussain, 2015). ===== Research motivation ===== Research motivation based on their intelligence (r = 0.72, p < 0.01) in postgraduate student was correlated with grit (r = 0.27, p < 0.01) and academic achievement (r = 0.26, p < 0.01). Although research motivation was the bigger predictor with an r value of 0.84 (p < 0.01), making it a critical mediatory pathway. ===== Coping and self-cultivation skills ===== Academic grit and coping strategies which included self-efficacy, autonomic Help-Seeking Orientation and self-cultivation or personal growth characteristics in Anglo-Saxon (0.37) participant, explained 24-26% of variance (Harpaz, Vaizman & Yaffe, 2024). ===== Social Support ===== Social support plays a critical role by enhancing correlation between grit and academic achievement. The first study did a regression analysis on korean student and receiving parental support (r= 0.267, p< 0.01), friend support (r= 0.140, p< 0.01), teacher support (r= 0.197, p< 0.01), and grit (r= 0.367, p< 0.01), as being correlated with academics (Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025). == Conclusion == Grit's relationship with academic achievement has evolved over time. Foundational studies identified two types of grit: general grit, a consistent trait across contexts, and domain-specific grit, which manifests in specific areas like academics. Although early research linked grit strongly to academic success among students, recent meta-analyses have shown only a small correlation, with prior academic performance being a better predictor than grit. Critically, grit overlaps with cognitive ability. For disadvantaged students, grit has shown limited impact. Moreover, factors such as cognitive ability, deliberate practice, self-regulated learning, research motivation, and social support emerge as significant influences on academic achievement, indicating that grit alone may not be the sole determinant of success. Gaps within the research are the subjective of causality and the mechanisms for grit as a concept has led to various methodological limitations and reduce the reliance on self-reports which are subject to a multitude of biases. The overall data lack generalisability at time due to the hyper restricted populations of the sample derived for the study, with studies focusing on western and students with high cognitive abilities. Other factors like burnout, career aspirations, non-educational responsibility, cognitive load, resource accessability weren't explored as well. Areas for future research should focus more on longitudinal and experimental studies testing and for confounding variable and overall clarifying the concept, its effect, inclusions and exclusion to have overall more replicable and accurate studies. Also, exploring the malleability of grit, its cross-cultural, gender, socioeconomic influences. As well as, looking at areas outside of academic achievement, such as sports and work. Although the research on grit and academic achievement is conflicting and confusing, developing grit is a fantastic was to practice stamina and can be applicable to all facets of life{{rewrite}}. {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Test yourself!|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} <quiz display=simple> {What is Grit?} - Cognitive trait + non-cognitive trait + Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of Interest - Adaptability and Commitment {How does grit influence academic achievement?} + persist through setbacks and sustain effort toward goals - try and persist until faced with a difficult challenge - use brute force or rote learning to facilitate learning + self-regulated learning strategies or deliberate practice {What psychological theories explain grit?} + Social-determination theory and Locke theory of goal setting - Adaptability 2-factor theory and Interest & persistence theory + Cloninger’s seven-factor psychobiological model of personality, Achievement goal theory - Intellectual modification and Fixed Mindset theory {What does the empirical evidence say about grit? Any critiques?} - Grit is the sole predictor of academic success + The research on grit is confusing regarding it being the predictor of academic success {Can grit be fostered?} - Grit is viewed as a malleable which can be assisted using independant and fixed mindset + Grit is viewed as a malleable which can be assisted using coping strategies, growth mindset and support </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Answers!|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} What is Grit? * non-cognitive trait * Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of Interest How does grit influence academic achievement? * persist through setbacks and sustain effort toward goals * self-regulated learning strategies or deliberate practice What psychological theories explain grit? * Social-determination theory and Locke theory of goal setting * Cloninger’s seven-factor psychobiological model of personality, Achievement goal theory What does the empirical evidence say about grit? Any critiques? * The research on grit is confusing regarding it being the predictor of academic success Can grit be fostered? * Grit is viewed as a malleable which can be assisted using coping strategies, growth mindset and support{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Academic buoyancy|Academic buoyancy]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Academic resilience|Academic resilience]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Conscientiousness and motivation|Conscientiousness and motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Deliberate practice and mastery|Deliberate practice and mastery]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation|Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Feedback and motivation in sport|Feedback and motivation in sport]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Grit and conscientiousness|Grit and conscientiousness]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Hardiness|Hardiness]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Long-term goal achievement|Long-term goal achievement]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Mental toughness|Mental toughness]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Chapters by year|Motivation and emotion book chapters]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Perseverance|Perseverance]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and academic achievement]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|Willpower]] (Wikiversity) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abubakar, U., Azli, N. A. S. M., Hashim, I. A., Kamarudin, N. F. A., Latif, N. A. I. A., Badaruddin, A. R. M., Razak, M. Z., & Zaidan, N. A. (2021). Association between grit and academic achievement among undergraduate pharmacy students in Malaysia. Currents in pharmacy teaching and learning, 13(5), 550-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2021.01.013 Barbouta, A., Barbouta, C., & Kotrotsiou, S. (2020). Growth Mindset and Grit: How Do University Students' Mindsets and Grit Affect their Academic Achievement? International journal of caring sciences, 13(1), 654-664. https://www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org/docs/72.%20kotrotsiou%206-2-2020.pdf Clark, K. N., & Malecki, C. K. (2019). Academic Grit Scale: Psychometric properties and associations with achievement and life satisfaction. Journal of School Psychology, 72, 49-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.12.001 Clark, K. N., Dorio, N. B., Eldridge, M. A., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2020). Adolescent academic achievement: A model of social support and grit. Psychology in the schools, 57(2), 204-221. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22318 Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2000). ''Self-Determination Theory - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics.'' Sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/self-determination-theory Hamdy Helal, M., & Abohashem Hassan, E. (2025). Research motivation as a mediating variable between system intelligence, academic grit, and academic achievement among postgraduate students, faculty of education, Zagazig University. BMC Psychology, 13(1), 70-78. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02374-z Harpaz, G., Vaizman, T., & Yaffe, Y. (2024). University students' academic grit and academic achievements predicted by subjective well‐being, coping resources, and self‐cultivation characteristics. Higher education quarterly, 78(1), 192-211. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12455 Harwood, C., & Thrower, S. (2020). Achievement Goal Theory - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics. Www.sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/achievement-goal-theory He, X., Wang, H., Chang, F., Dill, S.-E., Liu, H., Tang, B., & Shi, Y. (2021). IQ, grit, and academic achievement: Evidence from rural China. International journal of educational development, 80, 102306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102306 Jiang, W., Xiao, Z., Liu, Y., Guo, K., Jiang, J., & Du, X. (2019). Reciprocal relations between grit and academic achievement: A longitudinal study. Learning and Individual Differences, 71, 13-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.02.004 Lam, K. K. L., & Zhou, M. (2019). Examining the relationship between grit and academic achievement within K‐12 and higher education: A systematic review. Psychology in the schools, 56(10), 1654-1686. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22302 Lam, K. K. L., & Zhou, M. (2022). Grit and Academic Achievement: A Comparative Cross-Cultural Meta-Analysis. Journal of educational psychology, 114(3), 597-621. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000699 Lee, S., & Sohn, Y. W. (2017). Effects of grit on academic achievement and career-related attitudes of college students in Korea. Social behavior and personality, 45(10), 1629-1642. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6400 Lee, S., Kim, Y., & Shin, J. (2025). Exploring the Interplay of Social Support, Grit, and Achievement in Korean Junior High School Students. Psychology in the schools, 62(7), 2300-2310. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.23467 Martoyo, I., & Lindawati, L. (2023). Grit, Student Academic Achievement and Factors Affecting It. Jurnal psikologi teori dan terapan (Online), 14(3), 262-269. https://doi.org/10.26740/jptt.v14n03.p262-269 ‌O’Connor, M. C., & Paunonen, S. V. (2007). Big Five personality predictors of post-secondary academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(5), 971–990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.017 Rimfeld, K., Kovas, Y., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2016). True Grit and Genetics: Predicting Academic Achievement From Personality. Journal of personality and social psychology, 111(5), 780-789. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000089 Segal, H., & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, M. (2025). Grit as a moderator of the association between cognitive abilities and STEM achievements in high school. International journal of STEM education, 12(1), 25-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-025-00536-4 Singh, S., & Chukkali, S. (2021). Development and validation of multi-dimensional scale of grit. *Cogent psychology, 8*(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2021.1923166 Tannoubi, A., Quansah, F., Magouri, I., Chalghaf, N., Bonsaksen, T., Srem-Sai, M., Hagan, J. E., Handrianto, C., Azaiez, F., & Bragazzi, N. L. (2023). Modelling the associations between academic engagement, study process and grit on academic achievement of physical education and sport university students. BMC Psychology, 11(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01454-2 Tugabirwe, I., & Rukundo, A. (2024). Grit Predicts Academic Achievement among Undergraduate Science Teachers at a University of Science and Technology. Qeios, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.32388/MMPITX.2 Wolters, C. A., & Hussain, M. (2015). Investigating grit and its relations with college students’ self-regulated learning and academic achievement. *Metacognition and learning, 10*(3), 293-311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-014-9128-9 }} == External links == * [https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/lesson-grit-angela-duckworth A lesson in grit from Angela Duckworth] (Penn Today) * [https://theconversation.com/do-we-actually-grow-from-adversity-122252 Do we actually grow from adversity?] (The Conversation) * [https://theconversation.com/grit-matters-when-a-child-is-learning-to-read-even-in-poor-south-african-schools-157982 Grit matters when a child is learning to read, even in poor South African schools] (The Conversation) * [https://theconversation.com/grit-or-quit-how-to-help-your-child-develop-resilience-195195 Grit or quit? How to help your child develop resilience] (The Conversation) * [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210601-grit-the-dark-side-of-deciding-to-tough-it-out Grit: The dark side of deciding to 'tough it out'] (ABC) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-ONEAcBeTk Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance | Angela Duckworth | Talks at Google] (YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H14bBuluwB8 Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance | Angela Lee Duckworth | TED] (YouTube) * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/angelicagutierrez/2025/07/10/grit-why-it-matters-and-how-to-develop-it/ Grit: Why It Matters And How To Develop It] (Forbes) * [https://theconversation.com/grit-and-relentless-perseverance-can-take-a-toll-on-brain-health-particularly-for-people-facing-social-stresses-like-racism-251585 ‘Grit’ and relentless perseverance can take a toll on brain health − particularly for people facing social stresses like racism] (The Conversation) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-31/growth-mindset-grit-and-resilience-key-to-success/10055608 Growth mindset, grit and resilience are central to getting what you want, psychologists say] (ABC) * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmichelson2/2018/08/30/high-achievers-have-more-grit-than-talent-8-ways-you-can-too/ High Achievers Have More Grit Than Talent] (Forbes) * [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2025/may/21/its-not-grit-that-children-lack-but-proper-support It’s not ‘grit’ that children lack, but proper support] (The Guardian) * [https://theconversation.com/psychological-grit-is-over-rated-as-the-key-to-retention-in-distance-education-a-south-african-study-debunks-the-myth-199022 Psychological grit is over-rated as the key to retention in distance education: a South African study debunks the myth] (The Conversation) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgLG9bFYmZc Should Schools Be Teaching Kids ‘Grit’ to Fix Mental Health? | This Morning's View] (YouTube) * [https://theconversation.com/true-grit-we-measured-it-and-found-it-protected-doctors-from-career-burnout-170628 True grit – we measured it and found it protected doctors from career burnout] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Achievement]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grit] None 4lwg7mq3i2keqypkdvjy0zd0bfsvmiy 2830326 2830325 2026-09-02T00:20:54Z P U3270518 3106535 2830326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Grit and academic achievement <br>What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students?}} == <big>Overview</big> == {{robelbox|theme=7|title=Case study: Nikil|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} [[File:Case_study_magnifying_glass.png|left|340px|Looking closer at the case study! ]] Nikil is a 21-year-old medical student in India who is a high-achieving student. He is the first in his family to attend a university. His family emphasizes that his success will bring honor and pride to his parents and community. He feels a great need to excel to repay his parents’ sacrifices and make use of his opportunity to gain higher socio-economic status. He often studies late into the night and skips meals, not because becoming a doctor is something he enjoys, but because he is afraid of disappointment and failure. He often ruminates heavily on his mistakes, compares his grades to others and has anxiety before exams. He often feels he must excel to be accepted. He began to find it hard to maintain a 97% average which he had throughout high school into university. Nikhil's current lifestyle left him feeling empty and fatigued, with decreased interest and creativity. Additionally, he overcriticized himself for not being perfect and it affected how he felt about himself. As he talked with his parent{{gr}} about how he was feeling, they responded by truly finding out why he wanted to become a doctor, and that is exactly what he did. During his hospital rotation, he realized his skills of empathy but being logical and making a lasting impact on his client gave him immense satisfaction; he realised this is truly his career path. Once realising this, his studies became much more enjoyable; he was able to persist, commit, and manage and develop healthy coping strategies. Overall helping him to go on to become a successful graduate. This case study shows Nikil is someone who has grit, particularly persistence on effort but through support from his family and his own personal interest in being a doctor helped to reinvigorate his passion and commitment to becoming a doctor.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Students around the world are faced with new challenges, setbacks, dissapointments{{sp}} and difficulties everyday. These setbacks can be especially challenging during the early educational years, when career sucess{{sp}} is predicated on academic performance. A recent example of a setback faced by students everywhere is the [[COVID-19|Coronavirus (Covid-19) Pandemic]] and the emergence of [[wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence_in_education|AI learning tools.]] This caused students, teachers and scientists around the globe to persevere against systemic-level disruptions by adaping{{sp}} and developing innovative ways to connect, learn, improve and retain knowledge in order to facillitate{{sp}} academic achievement. Some students found these challenges especially difficult leading them to disengage and drop out, but others like Nikhil (who we will talk about) persisted and eventually found success. This begs the question: is academic achievement based solely on your [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]] score, talent, [[Psychological resilience|resilience]] or perhaps you need some good old, hard work? This exact question led author and psychologist [https://angeladuckworth.com/ Angela Duckworth] to popularise the term "[[wikipedia:Grit_(personality_trait)|grit]]", suggesting persistence interest and sustained effort paved the way for success as opposed to talent or skills alone. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is grit? * How does grit influence academic achievement? * What psychological theories explain grit? * What does the empirical evidence say about grit? Any critiques? * Can grit be fostered and if so, how can it be applied? '''Reflection:''' '''Think of a time when you faced a major academic or life challenge. What factors or setbacks helped or hindered your ability to continue during the challenging situation?''' {{RoundBoxBottom}} Throughout the chapter, refering{{sp}} back to this case study of Nikil below to help consolidate your learning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] '''Key concepts:''' *Grit *Academic Achievement * Persistence * Interest *Intelligence *Consciousness *Self-regulation {{RoundBoxBottom}} == <big>Grit</big> == [[File:Marathon runner.png|thumb|289x289px|A middle-aged man showing his perseverance and passion towards achieving his goal of winning a marathon.]] Grit is often regarded as a conceptual topic without a definitive definition or measure, in order to quantify, measure and understand what laypeople and scientists regard grit to be lets look at a few sources which ain to define grit. === <u><big>Defining grit</big></u> === The word "grit" originates from the German word ''"[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/griess Griess],"'' which according to the [[mwod:grit|Merriam-Webster dictionary]], means "grit". Furthermore the dictionary defintion for a person with grit is explained as two qualities: firmness of mind or spirit and unyielding courage in the face of hardship or danger. Otherwise, as a person with courage and is adapt to grinding, setbacks, or hardships through the firmness of their mind. Although this is the dictionary definition, the psychological definition is slightly different. [[wikipedia:Angela_Duckworth|Angela Lee Duckworth]] and colleagues popularised "grit," to be simply defined as a personality trait of an individual who [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/persevere\ perseveres] and has a [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/passion passion] for their long-term [[Goal setting|goals]] (Lam & Zhou, 2019; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Tugabirwe & Rukundo, 2024; Jiang et al., 2019 ) [[File:Girl climbing mountain.png|thumb|256x256px|A girl through passion and perseverance, is climbing difficult and challenging mountain to achieve her long-term goal of climbing to the summit{{ic|how does this relate to academic achievement?}}]] <blockquote> ''"Grit is passion and perseverance for long-term goals.'' ''One way to think about grit is to consider what grit isn’t. Grit isn’t talent.'' ''Grit isn’t luck. Grit isn’t how intensely, for the moment, you want something.'' ''Instead, grit is about having what some researchers call an "ultimate concern”–a goal you care about so much that it organizes and gives meaning to almost everything you do. And grit is holding steadfast to that goal. Even when you fall down. Even when you screw up. Even when progress toward that goal is halting or slow.'' ''Talent and luck matter to success. But talent and luck are no guarantee of grit. And in the very long run, I think grit may matter as least as much, if not more."'' [https://angeladuckworth.com/qa/#faq-125 ''━'' ''Angela Duckworth'']</blockquote> The definition used by the American Psychological Association is, <blockquote>''"n. a personality trait characterized by perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals. Grit entails working strenuously to overcome challenges and maintaining effort and interest over time despite failures, adversities, and plateaus in progress. Recent studies suggest this trait may be more relevant than intelligence in determining a person’s high achievement. For example, grit may be particularly important to accomplishing an especially complex task when there is a strong temptation to give up altogether."'' [https://dictionary.apa.org/grit ''━'' ''APA 2018'']</blockquote> === <u><big>Characterising grit</big></u> === [[File:Elderly + award.png|thumb|283x283px|A person, despite age {{g}} achieved an award through their grit.]] Grit is characterised as a hierarchical, non-cognitive dispositional or personality trait which means, an enduring characteristic and behaviours employed by the individual to uniquely adjust to life across different situations (APA, 2018; Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020; Clark, Dorio, Eldridge, Malecki & Demaray, 2020; Clark & Malecki, 2019; He et al., 2021; Helal & Hassan 2025; Lam & Zhou, 2019; Lee & Sohn, 2017; Singh & Chukkali, 2021). A gritty individual works tirelessly towards challenges, maintains effort, interest and stamina over extended periods despite failures, advesities and plateus (He et al., 2021; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Tugabirwe & Rukundo, 2024). Grit is a malleable construct which can be learned and developed through coping skills and self-cultivation, social support, training, experiences and practicing endurance similar to how you would develop your muscles in the gym (Duckworth et al., 2007; Harpaz, Vaizman & Yaffe, 2024; Singh & Chukkali, 2021; Jiang et al., 2019 ). Specifically, Grit encompasses goal-directness, persistence, passion and commitment. According to a 2020 study there is a moderate positive correlation between grit and older participants (Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020). Perhaps, due to the increase time to experience different situations and circumstances could be accredited to why older people tend to have higher grit levels. This could also be a contributing reason as to why postgraduate students in the same study had a higher overall mean in academic score of 78.2 (SD of 10.0) compared to the undergraduate students (overall mean of 72.9, SD of 9.6) (Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020). ==== <big>2 Facet of grit</big> ==== [[File:Mollusk, shells and fossils prize winner.png|thumb|224x224px|A fossil hunter holding their winning ammonite fossil earned through his lifelong passion and commitment to finding, and refurbishing pieces of fossil history.]]Perseverance of effort (PE) is the ability to sustain energy and towards long term goals involving high mental stamina by overcoming adversities and distractions through sustained effort to accomplish a goal (Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Jiang et al., 2019 ; Wolters & Hussain, 2015). Oftentimes, PE is compared to qualities of [[wikipedia:Conscientiousness|conscientiousness]] from the big five personality theory because of the overlapping themes of being responsible, diligent and goal-oriented (O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007). Consistency of interest (CI) is ability to adhere and maintain focus to goals which the idividual is passionate and accredits meaning and purpose towards for long periods to sustain their ultimate final long term goal( Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025; Jiang et al., 2019 ). For example, an ultimate final goal could be completing an undergraduate degree with a high distinction. === <big><u>Measures of grit</u></big> === There are multiple scales which have been used to quanitify grit. These incluse the Original Grit scale, Short Grit scale, Triarchic model of grit scale, Multi-dimensional grit scale and the Academic grit scale. ===== Original grit scale (Grit-O) ===== [[File:Psychological Survey.png|thumb|292x292px|Psychological self-report survey measure ]] As the name suggests this is the original first developed grit scale by Duckworth and collegues, asking demographic questions, the individual's level of academic performance satisfaction compared to their actual academic score (Barbouta, Barbouta & Kotrotsiou, 2020). Nowadays this scale is commonly used. ===== Short grit scale (Grit-S) ===== The Short Grit Scale is an improved, model fit and overall a better measurement tool inspired by the Grit-O. This is currently the most used grit scale in wester and individualist countries. It is a twelve item two factor hierachical scale maximized by the particular items which were most correlated in accordance with factor analysis. ===== Triarchic model of grit scale ===== The triachic model of grit by Datu and collegues in 2017 expanded upon the 2 factor hierachical structure and introduced the facet of situational adaptability, which gain acclaim. ===== Multi-dimensional scale of grit ===== With the growing need for cultural inclusion and generalisability with research the Multi-Dimensional Scale of Grit (MDSG) was designed by Singh and Chukkali in 2021 to allow the concept of grit to traverse the global scale and be more accessible to non-western and individualistic communities (Singh & Chukkali, 2021). This 12 item Likert scale measure, particularly designed to be applicable to collectivist, religious and eastern countries where through religious and ancient literature have identifies similar elements such as “gumption" and “titiksha” from Hindu holy books; yang in Taoist principles; “dukkha” from Buddhist literature and the Islamic perspectives’ emphasis on strength of character, constancy, steadfastness, work devotion determination (Singh & Chukkali, 2021). Overall the scale tends to have good internal consistency, reliability, criterion and divergent validity, but more studies need to conducted to corroborate its generalizability with the wider community due to the gender, age and university humanity and social science focus (Singh & Chukkali, 2021). ==== Academic grit scale (AGS) ==== Finally, the concept of domain-specific grit was explore through the academic grit scale. This scale has 10 items focusing on determination, resilience, and focus in the pursuit of challenging long-term goals within education (Clark & Malecki, 2019). [[File:Glossary icon.jpg|centre|93x93px|'''<u>Glossary</u>''' ]] '''Table 1.''' The 2 x 7 on the definition and theory adjasent to grit x key theoretical terms. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+<big>Key terms often associated with grit:</big> !Key term !Definition !Theory |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/lockes-theory-of-goal-setting Long-term goal oriented:] | * ''a'' ''person' who focused on the process of establishing specific, time-based behavior targets that are measurable, achievable, and realistic. Goal setting is effective only if the individual's are aware of what needs to be accomplished and accept the goal themselves and believe in their attainability.'' |According to Locke theory of goal setting, specifies specific, challenging, sub-goals are better for performance to regulate energy expenditure, improve persistence, skill development with timely feedback on progression are pivotal to attaining long term goals, such as academic achievement. Also in accordance with self-determination theory a individual is moer{{sp}} likely to achieve their long term goals if he motivation behind their drive is intrinsic to satidy their psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Furthermore, expectancy-value theory suggests a persons effort, persistence and choices are determined by the person self-efficacy to attain goal (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This allows the individual to foster a growth mindset where their belief in their abilities help them to self-regulate, make informed choices and dedicate themselves to their goal (Deci & Ryan, 2000). |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/passion Passionate]: | *''an intense, driving, or overwhelming feeling or conviction. Passion is often contrasted with emotion, in that passion affects a person unwillingly.'' *''a strong enthusiasm for or devotion to an activity, object, concept, or the like.'' |According to self-determination theory, there are two types of passion: harmonious which is the healthy form compared to the maladaptive form called obsessive (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Harmonius{{sp}} passion allows for flexibility and immersive enagement{{sp}} whereas obsessive passion can be rigid and impersonal Deci & Ryan, 2000). |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/persistence Perseverance/Persistence:] [https://dictionary.apa.org/effortfulness Effortfulness] | * ''Continuance or repetition of a particular behavior, process, or activity despite cessation of the initiating stimulus.'' * ''The quality or state of maintaining a course of action or keeping at a task and finishing it despite the obstacles (such as opposition or discouragement) or the effort involved.'' * ''exertion that demands attentional and other cognitive resources: a feature of many psychological tasks that can be judged reliably by participants.'' |According to Cloninger’s seven factor psychobiological model of personality expand further on persistence as the tendency to continue a task or activity regardless of frustration, dissatisfaction, or fatigue. According to SDT the psychological needs to be competence, related and sutonomous can increase the volition of the peron to strive in their activities (Deci & Ryan, 2000). |- |[https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/edu0000699 Academic achievement] | * ''any identifiable success in the areas of scholarship or disciplined study.'' * ''in educational psychology, a level of proficiency in scholastic work in general or in a specific skill, such as arithmetic or reading. Evidence of future academic achievement is usually based on the results of standardized ability tests and assessment of performance by a teacher or other supervisor.'' |Achievement goal theory talks about there are 4 major categories of goals: approach or avoidant mastery of skills and understanding and approach or avoidant performance or competive{{sPP and peer validation based goals. the avoidant types of goals tend to have negative affect, drive and self-worth outcomes (Harwood & Thrower, 2020). |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/interest Interest:] | * ''an attitude characterized by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area.'' | |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/resilience Resilience:] | *''the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences, especially through mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility and adjustment to external and internal demands.'' * ''A number of factors contribute to how well people adapt to adversities, predominant among them (a) the ways in which individuals view and engage with the world, (b) the availability and quality of social resources, and (c) specific coping strategies. Psychological research demonstrates that the resources and skills associated with more positive adaptation (i.e., greater resilience) can be cultivated and practiced.'' | |- |[https://dictionary.apa.org/intelligence Intelligence] | * ''the ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason.'' | |} == Grit & academic achievement: == The association between grit and academic achievement using the measure discussed earlier try to empircally understand and predict success in academic settings. ==== <big>Foundational studies</big> ==== Foundational studies by Duckworth and colleagues tried to predict success through academic engagement, self-efficacy, educational graduation, retention rates and Grade point averages over time (Wen et al., 2019 cited from Duckworth et al., 2007). Throughout the years two types of grit was identified. ===== General Grit ===== * An overarching dispositional trait where attitudes and behaviors stay consistent across different contexts (Clark & Malecki, 2019). ===== Domain-specific Grit ===== * Grit-based attitudes and behaviors are only displayed when in a certain contexts or condition (Clark & Malecki, 2019). * For example, Academic grit is when a person shows grit during educational pursuits. Overall domain-specific grit has shown a better predictor of academic achievement than general grit. (Clark & Malecki, 2019). ==== <big>Recent studies</big> ==== Although foundational studies highlighted a high correlation between grit and academic achievement, especially amongst primary to college students, the current data suggest differently.{{f}} [[File:Contradicting research data plots.png|thumb|240x240px|Contradicting research data plots from different research articles]] A 2019 meta-analysis of suggested the correlation between grit and academic achievement was small but significant with the mean coefficient of 0.16 (95% CI: 0.14, 0.18 Z=15.95, p < .001) and mean average correlation of overall grit is 0.17 (Lam & Zhou, 2019). Similarly a more recent 2022 meta-analysis suggested the overall grit level to academic achievement was weak to moderate (weighted correlation = 0.19). They also found, the effect size is similar to conscientiousness (r = .19) and subjective well-being (r = .16). The total estimated average weighted average of grit overall was 0.24 (95% CI: 0.213, 0.261) (Lam & Zhou, 2019). In accordance with longitudinal studies, they seem to support a reciprocal relationship of PE and academic achievement being mutually reinforcing to each other (Wen et al., 2019). This means PE predicts achievement and prior achievement contributes to PE’s development. Overall, PE has been discovered to be a better predictor for academic success than CI especially in standardised measures like the gpa and similar school grades systems (Lam & Zhou, 2022). Many studies consistently show PE has higher correlations and reforcing relationship (r=0.21; R²=2.3%; r= 0.508; r=0.425) to academic success whereas, CI has a weaker predictive and correlation to academic success (Clark, Dorio, Eldridge, Malecki & Demaray, 2020; Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lam & Zhou, 2022; Jiang et al., 2019 ). Also, a two-factor hierarchical structure in the AGS scale validation studies with samples from high-achieving adolescents, the national spelling bee child and adolescent finalists, Ivy League undergraduates, and West Point cadets showed to have strong internal consistency, test-retest reliability, consensual validity and high predictive validity (Clark & Malecki, 2019). There is also evidence to suggest grit is a better predictor of academic achievement in kindergarden to year 12 students (r=0.17) comparatively to university students (r=0.14)(Lam & Zhou, 2019; Lam & Zhou, 2022). ==== <big>Critiques:</big> ==== {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. The 2 x 16 on the Strengths and Weaknesses of Grit x Theory Efficacy ! !Strengths !Limitations !Sources |- |'''Scope''' |Domain-specific |Overlaps with Consciousness |Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Jiang, et al., 2019). ----(Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Lam & Zhao, 2022; Martoyo & Lindawati, 2023; Rimfeld, Kovas, Dale & Plomin, 2016). |- |'''Predictive power''' |Validity (incremental, can build upon itself) |Weak Consistency of Interest |(Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Harpaz, Vaizman & Yaffe, 2024). ----(Abubakar, et al., 2021; Jiang, et al., 2019; Lam & Zhao 2022) |- |'''New perspective''' |Non cognitive focus (included cultural backgrounds) |Method issues with reliability and correlation |(Jiang, et al., 2019; Singh & Chukkali, 2021) ----(Clark, & Malecki, 2019; Clark, Dorio, Eldridge, Malecki, & Demaray, 2020; Jiang, et al., 2019; Lam & Zhou, 2019; Tannoubi et al., 2023). |} All of these contradictions and critiques makes it difficult to determine whether grit is the sole influencer of academic success as once believed. == Alternative academic success influences == As an alternative to thinking grit is sole contributing factors to academic success, let us, think more broadly. ===== Cognitive Ability (IQ) ===== Grit is distinct from cognitive ability/IQ. Grit has been shown{{f}} to outperform IQ as a predictor of academic achievement in samples of high-achieving students. Although grit is a better predictor of academic success in high achieving samples; student samples of lower end of the IQ spectrum, from poor socioeconomic status has suggested different results (Lee & Sohn, 2017; Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025; Tugabirwe & Rukundo, 2024). In a 2021 study looking at disadvantaged rural students, grit had an insignificant effect on school achievement for those with an IQ of 0.85 (Jiang, et al., 2019). A 2025 study suggested, grit could moderately influence cognitive abilities towards high educational achievement. It said stem high school student with high levels of cognitive abilities were statistically significant (β = 0.14, SE = 0.03, t(640) = 5.08, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.09, 0.19]) suggesting 34.58% of variance in STEM (physics, computer science, achievement interaction between cognition and grit to strongly predict highschool success (Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025){{rewrite}}. Surprisingly, this study suggested a greater association between CI (r = 0.10 to 0.15 (p < 0.05) as opposed to PE (r = 0.08, p = 0.046) as previous studies suggested helping them to bridge gaps which would otherwise affect performance (Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025). Another study looking at Indonesian students and GPA also found similar results (1.4% - 6.3%) and grit scores seemed to increase as they progressed through school from first to second to third year (Martoyo & Lindawati, 2023). As well as, students with extremely high levels of cognition showed slightly lower levels of grit compared to student with high cognition (Segal & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, 2025){{g}}. ===== Deliberate practice ===== Deliberate practice ($r = .19, p < .01$) and conscientiousness ($r = .21, p < .01$) in korean college students correlated positively with GPA, this highlighted the grit did not have a direct effect but mediatory one to achievement in academics (Lee & Sohn, 2017). ===== Self-regulated learning ===== Self-regulated learning suggests a consistent association of PE with self-efficacy, cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, time and study environment management strategies, and procrastination and CI with study environment management strategies, and procrastination, with only PE showing any improvement to academic achievement through regression analysis (Wolters & Hussain, 2015). ===== Research motivation ===== Research motivation based on their intelligence (r = 0.72, p < 0.01) in postgraduate student was correlated with grit (r = 0.27, p < 0.01) and academic achievement (r = 0.26, p < 0.01). Although research motivation was the bigger predictor with an r value of 0.84 (p < 0.01), making it a critical mediatory pathway. ===== Coping and self-cultivation skills ===== Academic grit and coping strategies which included self-efficacy, autonomic Help-Seeking Orientation and self-cultivation or personal growth characteristics in Anglo-Saxon (0.37) participant, explained 24-26% of variance (Harpaz, Vaizman & Yaffe, 2024). ===== Social Support ===== Social support plays a critical role by enhancing correlation between grit and academic achievement. The first study did a regression analysis on korean student and receiving parental support (r= 0.267, p< 0.01), friend support (r= 0.140, p< 0.01), teacher support (r= 0.197, p< 0.01), and grit (r= 0.367, p< 0.01), as being correlated with academics (Lee, Kim & Shin, 2025). == Conclusion == Grit's relationship with academic achievement has evolved over time. Foundational studies identified two types of grit: general grit, a consistent trait across contexts, and domain-specific grit, which manifests in specific areas like academics. Although early research linked grit strongly to academic success among students, recent meta-analyses have shown only a small correlation, with prior academic performance being a better predictor than grit. Critically, grit overlaps with cognitive ability. For disadvantaged students, grit has shown limited impact. Moreover, factors such as cognitive ability, deliberate practice, self-regulated learning, research motivation, and social support emerge as significant influences on academic achievement, indicating that grit alone may not be the sole determinant of success. Gaps within the research are the subjective of causality and the mechanisms for grit as a concept has led to various methodological limitations and reduce the reliance on self-reports which are subject to a multitude of biases. The overall data lack generalisability at time due to the hyper restricted populations of the sample derived for the study, with studies focusing on western and students with high cognitive abilities. Other factors like burnout, career aspirations, non-educational responsibility, cognitive load, resource accessability weren't explored as well. Areas for future research should focus more on longitudinal and experimental studies testing and for confounding variable and overall clarifying the concept, its effect, inclusions and exclusion to have overall more replicable and accurate studies. Also, exploring the malleability of grit, its cross-cultural, gender, socioeconomic influences. As well as, looking at areas outside of academic achievement, such as sports and work. Although the research on grit and academic achievement is conflicting and confusing, developing grit is a fantastic was to practice stamina and can be applicable to all facets of life{{rewrite}}. {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Test yourself!|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} <quiz display=simple> {What is Grit?} - Cognitive trait + non-cognitive trait + Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of Interest - Adaptability and Commitment {How does grit influence academic achievement?} + persist through setbacks and sustain effort toward goals - try and persist until faced with a difficult challenge - use brute force or rote learning to facilitate learning + self-regulated learning strategies or deliberate practice {What psychological theories explain grit?} + Social-determination theory and Locke theory of goal setting - Adaptability 2-factor theory and Interest & persistence theory + Cloninger’s seven-factor psychobiological model of personality, Achievement goal theory - Intellectual modification and Fixed Mindset theory {What does the empirical evidence say about grit? Any critiques?} - Grit is the sole predictor of academic success + The research on grit is confusing regarding it being the predictor of academic success {Can grit be fostered?} - Grit is viewed as a malleable which can be assisted using independant and fixed mindset + Grit is viewed as a malleable which can be assisted using coping strategies, growth mindset and support </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Answers!|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} What is Grit? * non-cognitive trait * Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of Interest How does grit influence academic achievement? * persist through setbacks and sustain effort toward goals * self-regulated learning strategies or deliberate practice What psychological theories explain grit? * Social-determination theory and Locke theory of goal setting * Cloninger’s seven-factor psychobiological model of personality, Achievement goal theory What does the empirical evidence say about grit? Any critiques? * The research on grit is confusing regarding it being the predictor of academic success Can grit be fostered? * Grit is viewed as a malleable which can be assisted using coping strategies, growth mindset and support{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Academic buoyancy|Academic buoyancy]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Academic resilience|Academic resilience]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Conscientiousness and motivation|Conscientiousness and motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Deliberate practice and mastery|Deliberate practice and mastery]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation|Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Feedback and motivation in sport|Feedback and motivation in sport]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Grit and conscientiousness|Grit and conscientiousness]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Hardiness|Hardiness]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Long-term goal achievement|Long-term goal achievement]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Mental toughness|Mental toughness]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Chapters by year|Motivation and emotion book chapters]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Perseverance|Perseverance]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and academic achievement]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|Willpower]] (Wikiversity) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abubakar, U., Azli, N. A. S. M., Hashim, I. A., Kamarudin, N. F. A., Latif, N. A. I. A., Badaruddin, A. R. M., Razak, M. Z., & Zaidan, N. A. (2021). Association between grit and academic achievement among undergraduate pharmacy students in Malaysia. Currents in pharmacy teaching and learning, 13(5), 550-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2021.01.013 Barbouta, A., Barbouta, C., & Kotrotsiou, S. (2020). Growth Mindset and Grit: How Do University Students' Mindsets and Grit Affect their Academic Achievement? International journal of caring sciences, 13(1), 654-664. https://www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org/docs/72.%20kotrotsiou%206-2-2020.pdf Clark, K. N., & Malecki, C. K. (2019). Academic Grit Scale: Psychometric properties and associations with achievement and life satisfaction. Journal of School Psychology, 72, 49-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.12.001 Clark, K. N., Dorio, N. B., Eldridge, M. A., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2020). 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(2016). True Grit and Genetics: Predicting Academic Achievement From Personality. Journal of personality and social psychology, 111(5), 780-789. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000089 Segal, H., & Kalfon-Hakhmigari, M. (2025). Grit as a moderator of the association between cognitive abilities and STEM achievements in high school. International journal of STEM education, 12(1), 25-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-025-00536-4 Singh, S., & Chukkali, S. (2021). Development and validation of multi-dimensional scale of grit. *Cogent psychology, 8*(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2021.1923166 Tannoubi, A., Quansah, F., Magouri, I., Chalghaf, N., Bonsaksen, T., Srem-Sai, M., Hagan, J. E., Handrianto, C., Azaiez, F., & Bragazzi, N. L. (2023). Modelling the associations between academic engagement, study process and grit on academic achievement of physical education and sport university students. BMC Psychology, 11(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01454-2 Tugabirwe, I., & Rukundo, A. (2024). Grit Predicts Academic Achievement among Undergraduate Science Teachers at a University of Science and Technology. Qeios, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.32388/MMPITX.2 Wolters, C. A., & Hussain, M. (2015). Investigating grit and its relations with college students’ self-regulated learning and academic achievement. *Metacognition and learning, 10*(3), 293-311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-014-9128-9 }} == External links == * [https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/lesson-grit-angela-duckworth A lesson in grit from Angela Duckworth] (Penn Today) * [https://theconversation.com/do-we-actually-grow-from-adversity-122252 Do we actually grow from adversity?] (The Conversation) * [https://theconversation.com/grit-matters-when-a-child-is-learning-to-read-even-in-poor-south-african-schools-157982 Grit matters when a child is learning to read, even in poor South African schools] (The Conversation) * [https://theconversation.com/grit-or-quit-how-to-help-your-child-develop-resilience-195195 Grit or quit? How to help your child develop resilience] (The Conversation) * [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210601-grit-the-dark-side-of-deciding-to-tough-it-out Grit: The dark side of deciding to 'tough it out'] (ABC) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-ONEAcBeTk Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance | Angela Duckworth | Talks at Google] (YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H14bBuluwB8 Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance | Angela Lee Duckworth | TED] (YouTube) * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/angelicagutierrez/2025/07/10/grit-why-it-matters-and-how-to-develop-it/ Grit: Why It Matters And How To Develop It] (Forbes) * [https://theconversation.com/grit-and-relentless-perseverance-can-take-a-toll-on-brain-health-particularly-for-people-facing-social-stresses-like-racism-251585 ‘Grit’ and relentless perseverance can take a toll on brain health − particularly for people facing social stresses like racism] (The Conversation) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-31/growth-mindset-grit-and-resilience-key-to-success/10055608 Growth mindset, grit and resilience are central to getting what you want, psychologists say] (ABC) * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmichelson2/2018/08/30/high-achievers-have-more-grit-than-talent-8-ways-you-can-too/ High Achievers Have More Grit Than Talent] (Forbes) * [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2025/may/21/its-not-grit-that-children-lack-but-proper-support It’s not ‘grit’ that children lack, but proper support] (The Guardian) * [https://theconversation.com/psychological-grit-is-over-rated-as-the-key-to-retention-in-distance-education-a-south-african-study-debunks-the-myth-199022 Psychological grit is over-rated as the key to retention in distance education: a South African study debunks the myth] (The Conversation) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgLG9bFYmZc Should Schools Be Teaching Kids ‘Grit’ to Fix Mental Health? | This Morning's View] (YouTube) * [https://theconversation.com/true-grit-we-measured-it-and-found-it-protected-doctors-from-career-burnout-170628 True grit – we measured it and found it protected doctors from career burnout] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Achievement]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grit] None qwkaagp033gk5oo6n0zddjz4iqvrudn 2 326640 2830241 2823851 2026-09-01T16:37:53Z Atcovi 276019 /* Subpages */ +pg 2830241 wikitext text/x-wiki == Application Goal == '''Fall 2027''' == Subpages == * [[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/Potential Clinical PhD programs]] * [[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/Research Interest?]] ** [[Suicide]] (WJ publication to improve [[w:Suicidology#Theories_of_suicide|Suicidology#Theories_of_suicide]]?) *[[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/Solid advice I've seen]] *[[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/GRE Preparation]] == Current tasks == === January 2026 - May 2026 === ==== Ongoing {{Ongoing}} ==== '''<u>High-priority</u>''' #Work on the CPARL Lab: [[User:Atcovi/Dr. Dzokoto/Emotion Lexicon Project]] {{Ongoing}} #Get ready for the call: [[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/feb19 zoom call|feb 19 zoom call info]] {{Done}} #Continue work on [[WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka]] [1] {{Done}} #start one on [[w:Overgeneral_autobiographical_memory|OGM]] [2]. {{Ongoing}} #*could this be qualitative? #**'''JULY 20, 2026:''' being worked off-wiki at the moment, hopefully will be published in september 2026. #Continue reaching out to PIs {{Ongoing}} '''<u>Less-priority</u>''' ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- #[[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/Posters guidance|Try to go for posters/publications]] (writing committee [[User:Atcovi/Dr. Dzokoto|Dr. Dzokoto]]?). #* '''aim for 1-2 posters''' {{Ongoing}} #[[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/Researchers|Get a concrete list of researchers you'd like to work with and who are within your niche.]] {{Done}} #Attend MORE conferences (keep up with the American Association of Suicidology; virtual is valid as well). {{Ongoing}} #Secure a full-time, research-oriented job if you can. {{Ongoing}} #* [[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/tips for job search]] #Guest lecture? Adjunct professor? ==== Completed {{Completed}} ==== *Graduate college with a 4.0 GPA. {{Completed}} * Email [https://vipbg.vcu.edu/ Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics] and try to get 1-2 professors to study under relating to suicidal ideation. {{Completed}} ** '''UPDATE:''' None available; probably due to emailing late, decent chance of getting a role in a year's time--important to grind in the meantime. *RE-SUBMIT [[Association Between Screen Time and Sleep: An Online Survey|undergrad thesis]] to PsyArXiv, then update WV page. {{Done}} ==== MAY 2026 PROGRESS REPORT: ==== 3 potential papers in the making, aim to get them published by fall 2026: # [[User:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide/The Paper]] # [[WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka]] {{Done}} # [[User:Atcovi/Dr. Dzokoto/Emotion Lexicon Project]] - Emotions paper 1 poster to present # [[User:Atcovi/APA2026 Abstract]] ← derived from paper #2. Continued internships? # Dr. Dzokoto (strengthen letter of recommendations) # '''EARLY AUGUST''' - reach out to professors at [https://vipbg.vcu.edu/ Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics]. {{Done}} Continue applying everywhere. Job changes could change things dramatically. === June 2026 - August 2026 === * [[User:Atcovi/APA2026 Abstract]] - August 8th presentation - {{Done}} * [[User:Atcovi/Journey to Clinical PhD/Dr. Nadorff Meeting]] - {{Done}} * Email [https://vipbg.vcu.edu/ Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics] and try to get 1-2 professors to study under relating to suicidal ideation. {{Done}} ** Potential opportunity in October 2026, reach out again for meeting. === September 2026 - December 2026 === ==== September 2026 PROGRESS REPORT: ==== * Finished 10-15 professors to apply to? [TBD] [[Category:Atcovi/Clinical Psychology]] 8w01q8tqrz77z2fo8dkn8gs594ibik0 2 327236 2830271 2798983 2026-09-01T18:01:53Z Dick Bos 24466 Ric 2830271 wikitext text/x-wiki &nbsp; [[File:On_Expedition_2015_MARBLE_Maastricht_University_2.JPG|thumb|Maastricht University, 2015-05-06. Explaining the principles of Wikipedia for students with [[User:Taketa]] (left) and [[User:Romaine]] (right)]] {{#babel:nl-N|en-3|de-2|fr-1}} &nbsp; My name is Dick Bos. I'm from the Netherlands. I work on the [[:w:nl:Gebruiker:Dick Bos|Dutch]] and [[en:User:Dick Bos|English]] wikipedia, on the English wikisource, on Wikimedia Commons etc. See my userpages there, please. * [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia logo]] Wikipedia: ** Dutch: [[w:nl:Gebruiker:Dick_Bos]] ** English: [[w:en:User:Dick Bos]] * [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] WikiSource: ** [[s:en:User:Dick Bos|User:Dick Bos]] on en-ws [[m:User:Dick Bos/where|Click here]] for the most complete and up to date list of my userpages on Wikimedia-projects. &nbsp; My projects: * [[User:Dick Bos/Marx|Karl Marx]] (and Friedrich Engels) * [[User:Dick Bos/Ricardo|David Ricardo]] == Handy == * [[Help:Contents]] ([[WV:HELP]]) * [[Help:CSS at Wikiversity]] 5seixjlrsnckf8oe5vtny0g91qobqmc 2 329164 2830242 2828384 2026-09-01T16:40:16Z Atcovi 276019 2830242 wikitext text/x-wiki AAS27: '''Poster Presentations''' '''due February 1, 2027, at 5:00 PM EST''' == Subpages == * [[User:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide/Skeleton Model Outlook for Poster]] * [[User:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide/Papers]] * [[User:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide/The Paper]] * [[User:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide/Journal Targets]] * [[User:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide/Poster Build]] [[Category:Atcovi/OGM & Suicide Poster]] nks0bpvlqc1w5byh3ev6zsj8yl9b963 0 330074 2830423 2830188 2026-09-02T06:36:12Z U3270398 3108645 /* Emotional processing during sleep and dreaming */ Rewording and restructuring 2830423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving -<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming Woman.jpg|right|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. A recurring dream after a loss keeps its emotional charge overnight, which is exactly what emotional processing during sleep is supposed to reduce.]] Natalie hasn't slept well in weeks. It's not like she's waking up screaming from a nightmare or anything that dramatic. But the same dream keeps coming back: she has been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who doesn't turn around. Her friends say it's just stress from the breakup. By lunchtime she can barely remember the details, but the feeling hangs around all day. She's isn't short on sleep, so why does she keep waking up feeling like she's already lost something? Is the dream working through her breakup, or just replaying it? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * A [[w:Dream|dream]] is a conscious experience during sleep that can be recalled on waking, and dreams reported after [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] tend to be the most vivid and the most emotional (Scarpelli et al., 2022). * Two processes are involved here, and it helps to keep them apart. Emotional processing happens overnight, when an emotional memory loses some of its intensity. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping]] happens while a person is awake, through the strategies a person uses to manage stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). The subtitle asks whether the first supports the second. * Sleep is widely described as overnight therapy: it holds onto the emotional memory but strips some of its sting by morning (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). * Very few researchers dispute that sleep does something, what they dispute is the role of the dream. Either the dream is where the emotional work happens, or it is a window into work that sleep would be doing anyway (Scarpelli, 2026). * Why does settling this matter? Because recurring distressing dreams like Natalie's (see Figure 1) are common, they appear across psychiatric disorders involving [[w:Emotional dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], and they can be treated (Casement & Swanson, 2012; Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * What happens to emotional memories during sleep? * What does dreaming add beyond REM sleep? * What does dream emotion predict in waking life? * How can dreams be targeted to improve coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Dreaming and emotional processing during sleep == '''''Focus question:''' Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming?'' * Natalie's dream keeps coming back with its emotional charge intact, which is what REM sleep is supposed to prevent. Explaining why means separating two things that are easily confused: what REM sleep does to an emotional memory, and what the dream does. Most evidence addresses REM sleep, so this section covers that briefly and then asks what is known about dreaming itself. ===What sleep does === * The leading model is Walker and van der Helm's (2009) "sleep to forget, sleep to remember". During REM sleep, the brain replays [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Memory and emotion|emotional memories]] while [[w:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]] (the chemical behind the body's stress response) is switched off, so the memory is kept but the alarm attached to it fades. Note what this predicts: physical arousal should fall while the memory stays intact, so the proper test is reactivity rather than whether the memory feels less bad. * Supporting evidence: 34 adults rated the same emotional images 12 hours apart. Reactivity fell across a night and rose across a day, and the largest drop was in those whose noradrenaline was lowest during REM (van der Helm et al., 2011). * Two stronger tests disagree and they use different methods, which makes it harder to miss. A meta-analysis of 24 studies found negative images rated as more arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022), and an experiment found participants with the least REM sleep showed the greatest overnight drop in arousal (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). * So sleep preserves emotional memories more reliably than it soothes them (Lipinska et al., 2019), and the model has not yet been properly tested, because removing REM disturbs every over sleep stage as well (Pesonen et al., 2024). ===What dreaming adds === * Dreaming is not simply the conscious experience of REM sleep. Across 111 published cases, forebrain damage stopped dreaming while REM sleep continued normally (Solms, 2000), and dreaming survives drugs that suppress REM (Scarpelli et al., 2026). * Because dreaming occurs outside REM sleep, evidence about REM sleep cannot be read as evidence about REM dreams, so dreaming has to be measured directly (Solms, 2000). * Measuring dreams is difficult: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). So studies using different rating sources may not be comparable. * Very few studies measure both REM and dreaming in the same people. In one, participants whose dreams were less negative showed the greatest overnight improvement in their ratings of emotional images (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). In another, the overnight drop in reactivity appeared only in participants who recalled a dream (Zhang et al., 2024). * No study can assign anyone to dream, so the direction is unresolved. Someone already coping well might both dream less negatively and adapt better overnight, with the dream contributing nothing, and mood and REM sleep appear to influence each other in both directions (Peltz et al., 2026). * Recall creates a further problem. Whether a dream is remembered depends on the state the sleeper wakes from (Scarpelli et al., 2022), and non-recallers may have dreamed and forgotten, which makes the claim difficult to disprove. * Whether dreams regulate emotion, mirror waking concerns, or do both remains an open question (Scarpelli, 2026). Answering it requires manipulating dream content rather than recording it (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020), which is discussed further in the final section. ==Theories of emotional dream function== '''''Focus question: '''What does dreaming add beyond REM sleep?'' *Three of the four theories claim the dream does something and the fourth claims it does not. Where they really differ is in what they predict should happen the morning after a bad dream. *"Function" here means the dream accomplishes something, the alternative is that the dream simply happens while sleep does the work. *Because the theories are hard to separate on dream content alone, they are compared below by their next-day predictions (see Table 1). *[[w:Nightmare|Nightmares]] make the clearest test, since the same dream can be read as either emotional processing working for one theory and failing for another. === The continuity hypothesis === * Dreams reflect waking concerns without acting on them, so nothing more is needed to explain why Natalie dreams about being left behind (Domhoff, 2017). * This is the position that the other theories have to beat rather than fourth option sitting alongside them: showing that a dream is meaningful is not the same as showing that is does something (Domhoff, 2019). * Even continuity is contested. Judges have repeatedly failed to match dream reports to what the dreamer was concerned about the day before (Domhoff, 2017).Others argue the effect is real but selective, with emotionally salient concerns incorporated far more often than trivial ones (Schredl, 2017; Malinowski & Horton, 2015). * Applied to Natalie, continuity predicts the dream keeps reoccurring and her mood keeps tracking it, with no improvement produced by the dreaming itself. ===Threat simulation === * Here the dream adds rehearsal. Dreaming simulates threatening events and practices detecting and avoiding them. The payoff is preparedness, not comfort, so nightmares show the system working rather than failing (Revonsuo, 2000). * The supporting claim is that most dream emotion is negative and aggression is the most common social interaction in dreams (Revonsuo, 2000). However, that estimate depends on who does the rating, since dreamers rate their own dreams as mostly positive (Sikka et al., 2017). * Against it: among recurrent dreams, 34% contained no threat at all and fewer than 20% resolved one, so the theory's most specific predictions were the ones that failed (Desjardins & Zadra, 2006). It also requires implicit learning during sleep to transfer to waking behaviour, which has not been demonstrated (Domhoff, 2019). * For Natalie, It predicts a dream that leaves her better prepared for abandonment without leaving her any calmer, which is a poor fit for coping. ===Fear extinction === * Here the dream adds recombination: frightening memories are replayed in new, non-fearful settings (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] doesn't erase the fear, it builds a competing safe memory alongside it, which is why the fear returns if that new memory isn't maintained (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * On this account nightmares are a breakdown of this process, as the replay stays frightening and no safe version gets built (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * Disrupted REM sleep and impaired extinction memory have been proposed to maintain [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), which gives the model a clinical test case (Pace-Schott et al., 2015). * Cathartic dreams, which move from danger to relief, are less common in nightmare disorder than in healthy sleepers, and were the only dream type that tracked falling depression scores across therapy (Perogamvros et al., 2025). * The main criticism is that the model treats bad dreams as adaptive and nightmares as maladaptive while attributing both to a single process, and it has nothing to say about the roughly one third of dreams that are positive (Weiss, 2007). * This is the theory tested most directly in ''Using dreams to improve coping'', because sleep interventions manipulate what gets replayed. ===Mood regulation === * Here the dream adds desensitisation. Dream emotion is proposed to shift from negative toward positive across the night, so its charge is reduced by morning (Cartwright et al., 1998). This is the headline claim, and the one closest to the popular idea that dreams work through problems, and it is tested in ''Dream emotion and waking life.'' * Dreamer's own ratings of the emotional tone of their day-to-day dreams have been read as inconsistent with a mood regulation function (Barbeau et al., 2022). * The supporting evidence is real but indirect: people who report more fear in dreams show weaker fear-related brain responses when awake (Sterpenich et al., 2020). That is a correlation across people at a single time point, so it can't establish direction. * The theory makes three testable predictions for the morning after a negative dream: mood should be less negative, reactivity to negative material should be weaker, and emotion regulation should be better (Sikka et al., 2022). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that a dream should be losing intensity over time, and hers is not. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1'''<br /> ''Competing theoretical accounts of the emotional function of dreaming and their predictions'' |- ! Theory !! Core claim !! Predicts that after a distressing dream, next-day mood will be... !! What it would say about Natalie |- | '''Continuity''' || Dreams reflect waking concerns but do not act on them || Unchanged. The dream mirrors mood without moving it || The dream is an accurate reflection of the breakup and nothing more |- | '''Threat simulation''' || Dreaming rehearses detecting and avoiding threat || No better, possibly worse. The payoff is preparedness || The dream is training her for abandonment, not calming her about it |- | '''Fear extinction''' || Fear memories are replayed in safe new contexts, building a competing safe memory || Better if extinction succeeds. Unchanged or worse if it fails || Her dream failed replay: fear is rehearsed but no safe version is built. |- | '''Mood regulation''' || Dream emotion shifts from negative toward positive overnight, discharging its intensity || Better: less negative mood, weaker reactivity, better regulation || The dream should be fading week by week, and it is not |- |} ==Dream emotion and waking life == '''''Focus question: '''What does dream emotion predict in waking life?'' * This evidence here points one way: dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it, and the mood regulation predictions largely fail. * Dreaming only counts as coping if dream emotion predicts something measurable while the person is awake (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). One objection is that a sleeping person cannot be trying to cope, but emotion regulation doesn't have to be conscious or deliberate to count as regulation, so this doesn't rule dreaming out (Gross, 2015). * Almost all the evidence below is correlational, which is why the experimental interventions in the next section carry more weight (Peltz et al., 2026) Evidence is examined at three points: the next morning, a major life stressor, and the point at which dreaming becomes a clinical problem. ===Dream emotion and next-day mood === *Across five days in 40 adults, more negative dream emotion predicted a more negative morning, with no effect on reactivity to negative images or on the ability to down-regulate them (Sikka et al., 2022). *All three mood predictions therefore failed, and the one effect that emerged ran opposite to the theory. *A much larger study found the same: across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were followed by more negative mood the next morning (Baber et al., 2026). *The same study found the reverse between people, with those who had more frightening dreams overall regulating emotion better when awake (Baber et al., 2026). Dream fear may therefore mark who copes well rather than support their coping. *Nights with no remembered dream showed no change in negative emotion at all, which is one of the few findings suggesting the dream itself adds something beyond REM sleep (Tousignant et al., 2022). *Results also depend on who rates them: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). Some disagreement between studies above may be disagreement about measurement. ===Dreaming and major life stress === * The diary studies above followed people with little to regulate, so this sub-section asks what happens when there is real distress (Cartwright et al., 1998). * Over five months of REM awakenings in adults going through a divorce, those still depressed at follow-up did dream about their ex partner, but the dreams lacked emotion and were not linked to other memories (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Those who recovered had emotional dreams about the same subject, so it is the emotion in the dream rather than the topic that tracks recovery (Cartwright et al., 2006). * This is the clearest evidence in the chapter that dreaming aids coping with a real stressor, and also the most fragile: one research program, with no replication using modern methods in the twenty five years since (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that feeling the loss in the dream is a better sign than dreaming about it without emotion. ===Nightmares and distress === * The two sections above asked whether dreaming helps, this subsection asks what happens when it clearly does not. * Nightmares occur weekly in roughly 4 to 10% of people, and about 4% of adults meet the criteria for nightmare disorder, so this is a common problem rather than a rare one (Nielsen & Levin, 2007; Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * Two things produce them: emotional pressure supplies the material, and a tendency to react strongly makes dreams distressing (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * The second matters more because distress predicts wellbeing better than frequency does (Blagrove et al., 2004). This is why treatment targets distress, and why Natalie's dream is a problem even though she sleeps enough. * Nightmares predicted [[w:Suicidal ideation|suicidal ideation]] in 583 students independently of insomnia, depression, anxiety and PTSD, and predicted death by suicide in 71,068 Finnish adults (Nadorff et al., 2011; Sandman et al., 2017). * They appear across disorders involving emotion dysregulation, and in children they prospectively predict later psychosocial maladjustment (Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024; Gauchat et al., 2020). * Nightmare disorder is now treated as a condition in its own right rather than only a symptom of something else, which is where section 4 begins (Gieselmann et al., 2019). <quiz display=simple> {In the diary studies described above, a more negative dream was typically followed the next morning by: |type="()"} - Better mood, as mood regulation theory predicts || Not quite. This is what the theory predicts, but it is not what was found. + Worse mood || Correct. Negative dream affect predicted a more negative next-day mood (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026). - No detectable change in mood || Not quite. There was a reliable effect, but it ran in the opposite direction to the theory. </quiz> ==Using dreams to improve coping== '''''Focus question: '''How can dreams be targeted to improve coping?'' * This section concludes that dreams can be changed deliberately and that doing so helps, though it is unclear whether the change to the dream is what helps. * That combination is the chapters central point: a dream can be a useful tool without being an automatic therapist. * These are the only randomised experiments in the chapter, so they carry the most casual weight (Gieselmann et al., 2019). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 2''' Six months on, the dream still hasn't stopped. Natalie has started staying up until she's too tired to dream, and she's tired all the time. Her psychologist suggests writing the dream down and changing what happens: this time, the person turns around, or Natalie stops calling out and walks the other way. She rehearses the new version of the dream for a few minutes every night. Within weeks the dream starts to come less often, and when it does, it bothers her less. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Rewriting the dream: imagery rehearsal therapy === * Imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) involves writing down a recurring nightmare, deliberately changing how it ends, and rehearsing the new version while awake for 10 to 20 minutes a day (Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * The logic follows the fear extinction section: rehearsing a new ending does while awake what fear extinction says a healthy dream does at night. * IRT is the only treatment the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends for nightmare disorder (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), and a network meta-analysis ranks it among the most effective options (Y. Zhang et al., 2022). * Meta-analysis finds large improvements held at 6 to 12 months, but these are the before and after effects rather than controlled ones (Casement & Swanson, 2012). * Two trials found no advantage for the rewriting itself over other sleep treatments (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019), and why IRT works is still disputed (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). * If it works through waking rehearsal and changed expectations, the dream is the target of treatment rather than the agent of change. ===Intervening during sleep itself === *The trials above leave one question: does anything happen during sleep that waking rehearsal cannot do alone? * Targeted memory reactivation tests this by pairing the new ending with a sound while awake, then replaying the sound quietly during REM sleep (Schwartz et al., 2022). * Adding the sound beat IRT alone, making this the strongest casual evidence in the chapter and the closest test of fear extinction (Schwartz et al., 2022). Though it is one small trial and needs replication. * A second approach plants dream content rather than cueing it: targeted dream incubation repeats a chosen theme at sleep onset, and 67% of prompted awakenings produced dream reports containing it, against 3% without the prompt (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * The point is methodological: a causal claim about dreaming requires manipulating dream content, which nothing in sections 1 and 3 does. Even a successful incubation cannot show whether the experience of dreaming matters or merely accompanies the work (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * Working the other way, better emotion regulation within dreams accompanied improvement during psychotherapy, so dream content may index progress as well as be a target of it (Kempe et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * Dreams like Natalie's recur because the emotional charge attached to a memory has not faded overnight. That is the problem this chapter set out to explain. * The short answer to the subtitle is that REM dreams reflect emotional processing more reliably than they perform it. Dream emotion behaves more like a thermometer than a heater: it registers how much distress someone is carrying, but there is little evidence that it is what brings the distress down. * Sleep changes emotional memories: it makes them more likely to be remembered without reliably making them feel less bad (Lipinska et al., 2022). Whether the dream contributes to that change is a separate question, and only two studies have tested it directly (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009; J. Zhang et al., 2024). * Four theories disagree about what a dream is for, they cannot be seperated by what dreams contain, only by what each predicts about the following morning (see Table 1). * The prediction that matters most for coping is the mood regulation one and it fails. Dream emotion predicts a worse next morning rather than a better one (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026), so it looks more like a sign of how well someone is coping than the thing doing the coping. * Dreams can still be changed on purpose: rewriting a recurring nightmare reduces both how often it happens and how much distress it causes (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), though whether the rewriting is the active ingredient is unresolved (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Settling the wider question means controlling dream content rather than only recording it, because a causal claim about dreaming requires dreams to be manipulated (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Natalie's dream did not repair itself, and it did not need to. What changed it was practising a new ending while awake. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A bad dream is not a sign that emotional processing is doing its job, dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it. * Dreaming may still add something, but the evidence is thin and comes from a handful of studies that could not assign anyone to dream. *"Sleep on it" is reasonable advice for retaining a memory, but not a reliable way to feel better about it. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baber, G. 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Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000213 van der Helm, E., Yao, J., Dutt, S., Rao, V., Saletin, J. M., & Walker, M. P. (2011). REM sleep depotentiates amygdala activity to previous emotional experiences. ''Current Biology, 21''(23), 2029–2032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.052 Walker, M. P., & van der Helm, E. (2009). Overnight therapy? The role of sleep in emotional brain processing. ''Psychological Bulletin, 135''(5), 731–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016570 Weiss, D. S. (2007). Conundrums in a theory of disturbed dreaming: Comment on Levin and Nielsen (2007). ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(3), 529–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.529 Zhang, J., Pena, A., Delano, N., Sattari, N., Shuster, A. E., Baker, F. C., Simon, K., & Mednick, S. C. (2024). Evidence of an active role of dreaming in emotional memory processing shows that we dream to forget. ''Scientific Reports, 14''(1), Article 8722. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58170-z <!-- add article number --> Zhang, Y., Ren, R., Vitiello, M. V., Yang, L., Zhang, H., Shi, Y., Sanford, L. D., & Tang, X. (2022). Efficacy and acceptability of psychotherapeutic and pharmacological interventions for trauma-related nightmares: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. ''Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139'', 104717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104717 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] ibomvjnd94r35snwunj1bwk3ima411r 2830424 2830423 2026-09-02T06:37:14Z U3270398 3108645 /* Overview */ 2830424 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving -<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming Woman.jpg|right|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. A recurring dream after a loss keeps its emotional charge overnight, which is exactly what emotional processing during sleep is supposed to reduce.]] Natalie hasn't slept well in weeks. It's not like she's waking up screaming from a nightmare or anything that dramatic. But the same dream keeps coming back: she has been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who doesn't turn around. Her friends say it's just stress from the breakup. By lunchtime she can barely remember the details, but the feeling hangs around all day. She's isn't short on sleep, so why does she keep waking up feeling like she's already lost something? Is the dream working through her breakup, or just replaying it? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * A [[w:Dream|dream]] is a conscious experience during sleep that can be recalled on waking, and dreams reported after [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] tend to be the most vivid and the most emotional (Scarpelli et al., 2022). * Two processes are involved here, and it helps to keep them apart. Emotional processing happens overnight, when an emotional memory loses some of its intensity. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping]] happens while a person is awake, through the strategies a person uses to manage stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). The subtitle asks whether the first supports the second. * Sleep is widely described as overnight therapy: it holds onto the emotional memory but strips some of its sting by morning (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). * Very few researchers dispute that sleep does something, what they dispute is the role of the dream. Either the dream is where the emotional work happens, or it is a window into work that sleep would be doing anyway (Scarpelli, 2026). * Why does settling this matter? Because recurring distressing dreams like Natalie's (see Figure 1) are common, they appear across psychiatric disorders involving [[w:Emotional dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], and they can be treated (Casement & Swanson, 2012; Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming? * What does dreaming add beyond REM sleep? * What does dream emotion predict in waking life? * How can dreams be targeted to improve coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Dreaming and emotional processing during sleep == '''''Focus question:''' Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming?'' * Natalie's dream keeps coming back with its emotional charge intact, which is what REM sleep is supposed to prevent. Explaining why means separating two things that are easily confused: what REM sleep does to an emotional memory, and what the dream does. Most evidence addresses REM sleep, so this section covers that briefly and then asks what is known about dreaming itself. ===What sleep does === * The leading model is Walker and van der Helm's (2009) "sleep to forget, sleep to remember". During REM sleep, the brain replays [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Memory and emotion|emotional memories]] while [[w:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]] (the chemical behind the body's stress response) is switched off, so the memory is kept but the alarm attached to it fades. Note what this predicts: physical arousal should fall while the memory stays intact, so the proper test is reactivity rather than whether the memory feels less bad. * Supporting evidence: 34 adults rated the same emotional images 12 hours apart. Reactivity fell across a night and rose across a day, and the largest drop was in those whose noradrenaline was lowest during REM (van der Helm et al., 2011). * Two stronger tests disagree and they use different methods, which makes it harder to miss. A meta-analysis of 24 studies found negative images rated as more arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022), and an experiment found participants with the least REM sleep showed the greatest overnight drop in arousal (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). * So sleep preserves emotional memories more reliably than it soothes them (Lipinska et al., 2019), and the model has not yet been properly tested, because removing REM disturbs every over sleep stage as well (Pesonen et al., 2024). ===What dreaming adds === * Dreaming is not simply the conscious experience of REM sleep. Across 111 published cases, forebrain damage stopped dreaming while REM sleep continued normally (Solms, 2000), and dreaming survives drugs that suppress REM (Scarpelli et al., 2026). * Because dreaming occurs outside REM sleep, evidence about REM sleep cannot be read as evidence about REM dreams, so dreaming has to be measured directly (Solms, 2000). * Measuring dreams is difficult: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). So studies using different rating sources may not be comparable. * Very few studies measure both REM and dreaming in the same people. In one, participants whose dreams were less negative showed the greatest overnight improvement in their ratings of emotional images (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). In another, the overnight drop in reactivity appeared only in participants who recalled a dream (Zhang et al., 2024). * No study can assign anyone to dream, so the direction is unresolved. Someone already coping well might both dream less negatively and adapt better overnight, with the dream contributing nothing, and mood and REM sleep appear to influence each other in both directions (Peltz et al., 2026). * Recall creates a further problem. Whether a dream is remembered depends on the state the sleeper wakes from (Scarpelli et al., 2022), and non-recallers may have dreamed and forgotten, which makes the claim difficult to disprove. * Whether dreams regulate emotion, mirror waking concerns, or do both remains an open question (Scarpelli, 2026). Answering it requires manipulating dream content rather than recording it (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020), which is discussed further in the final section. ==Theories of emotional dream function== '''''Focus question: '''What does dreaming add beyond REM sleep?'' *Three of the four theories claim the dream does something and the fourth claims it does not. Where they really differ is in what they predict should happen the morning after a bad dream. *"Function" here means the dream accomplishes something, the alternative is that the dream simply happens while sleep does the work. *Because the theories are hard to separate on dream content alone, they are compared below by their next-day predictions (see Table 1). *[[w:Nightmare|Nightmares]] make the clearest test, since the same dream can be read as either emotional processing working for one theory and failing for another. === The continuity hypothesis === * Dreams reflect waking concerns without acting on them, so nothing more is needed to explain why Natalie dreams about being left behind (Domhoff, 2017). * This is the position that the other theories have to beat rather than fourth option sitting alongside them: showing that a dream is meaningful is not the same as showing that is does something (Domhoff, 2019). * Even continuity is contested. Judges have repeatedly failed to match dream reports to what the dreamer was concerned about the day before (Domhoff, 2017).Others argue the effect is real but selective, with emotionally salient concerns incorporated far more often than trivial ones (Schredl, 2017; Malinowski & Horton, 2015). * Applied to Natalie, continuity predicts the dream keeps reoccurring and her mood keeps tracking it, with no improvement produced by the dreaming itself. ===Threat simulation === * Here the dream adds rehearsal. Dreaming simulates threatening events and practices detecting and avoiding them. The payoff is preparedness, not comfort, so nightmares show the system working rather than failing (Revonsuo, 2000). * The supporting claim is that most dream emotion is negative and aggression is the most common social interaction in dreams (Revonsuo, 2000). However, that estimate depends on who does the rating, since dreamers rate their own dreams as mostly positive (Sikka et al., 2017). * Against it: among recurrent dreams, 34% contained no threat at all and fewer than 20% resolved one, so the theory's most specific predictions were the ones that failed (Desjardins & Zadra, 2006). It also requires implicit learning during sleep to transfer to waking behaviour, which has not been demonstrated (Domhoff, 2019). * For Natalie, It predicts a dream that leaves her better prepared for abandonment without leaving her any calmer, which is a poor fit for coping. ===Fear extinction === * Here the dream adds recombination: frightening memories are replayed in new, non-fearful settings (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] doesn't erase the fear, it builds a competing safe memory alongside it, which is why the fear returns if that new memory isn't maintained (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * On this account nightmares are a breakdown of this process, as the replay stays frightening and no safe version gets built (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * Disrupted REM sleep and impaired extinction memory have been proposed to maintain [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), which gives the model a clinical test case (Pace-Schott et al., 2015). * Cathartic dreams, which move from danger to relief, are less common in nightmare disorder than in healthy sleepers, and were the only dream type that tracked falling depression scores across therapy (Perogamvros et al., 2025). * The main criticism is that the model treats bad dreams as adaptive and nightmares as maladaptive while attributing both to a single process, and it has nothing to say about the roughly one third of dreams that are positive (Weiss, 2007). * This is the theory tested most directly in ''Using dreams to improve coping'', because sleep interventions manipulate what gets replayed. ===Mood regulation === * Here the dream adds desensitisation. Dream emotion is proposed to shift from negative toward positive across the night, so its charge is reduced by morning (Cartwright et al., 1998). This is the headline claim, and the one closest to the popular idea that dreams work through problems, and it is tested in ''Dream emotion and waking life.'' * Dreamer's own ratings of the emotional tone of their day-to-day dreams have been read as inconsistent with a mood regulation function (Barbeau et al., 2022). * The supporting evidence is real but indirect: people who report more fear in dreams show weaker fear-related brain responses when awake (Sterpenich et al., 2020). That is a correlation across people at a single time point, so it can't establish direction. * The theory makes three testable predictions for the morning after a negative dream: mood should be less negative, reactivity to negative material should be weaker, and emotion regulation should be better (Sikka et al., 2022). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that a dream should be losing intensity over time, and hers is not. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1'''<br /> ''Competing theoretical accounts of the emotional function of dreaming and their predictions'' |- ! Theory !! Core claim !! Predicts that after a distressing dream, next-day mood will be... !! What it would say about Natalie |- | '''Continuity''' || Dreams reflect waking concerns but do not act on them || Unchanged. The dream mirrors mood without moving it || The dream is an accurate reflection of the breakup and nothing more |- | '''Threat simulation''' || Dreaming rehearses detecting and avoiding threat || No better, possibly worse. The payoff is preparedness || The dream is training her for abandonment, not calming her about it |- | '''Fear extinction''' || Fear memories are replayed in safe new contexts, building a competing safe memory || Better if extinction succeeds. Unchanged or worse if it fails || Her dream failed replay: fear is rehearsed but no safe version is built. |- | '''Mood regulation''' || Dream emotion shifts from negative toward positive overnight, discharging its intensity || Better: less negative mood, weaker reactivity, better regulation || The dream should be fading week by week, and it is not |- |} ==Dream emotion and waking life == '''''Focus question: '''What does dream emotion predict in waking life?'' * This evidence here points one way: dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it, and the mood regulation predictions largely fail. * Dreaming only counts as coping if dream emotion predicts something measurable while the person is awake (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). One objection is that a sleeping person cannot be trying to cope, but emotion regulation doesn't have to be conscious or deliberate to count as regulation, so this doesn't rule dreaming out (Gross, 2015). * Almost all the evidence below is correlational, which is why the experimental interventions in the next section carry more weight (Peltz et al., 2026) Evidence is examined at three points: the next morning, a major life stressor, and the point at which dreaming becomes a clinical problem. ===Dream emotion and next-day mood === *Across five days in 40 adults, more negative dream emotion predicted a more negative morning, with no effect on reactivity to negative images or on the ability to down-regulate them (Sikka et al., 2022). *All three mood predictions therefore failed, and the one effect that emerged ran opposite to the theory. *A much larger study found the same: across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were followed by more negative mood the next morning (Baber et al., 2026). *The same study found the reverse between people, with those who had more frightening dreams overall regulating emotion better when awake (Baber et al., 2026). Dream fear may therefore mark who copes well rather than support their coping. *Nights with no remembered dream showed no change in negative emotion at all, which is one of the few findings suggesting the dream itself adds something beyond REM sleep (Tousignant et al., 2022). *Results also depend on who rates them: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). Some disagreement between studies above may be disagreement about measurement. ===Dreaming and major life stress === * The diary studies above followed people with little to regulate, so this sub-section asks what happens when there is real distress (Cartwright et al., 1998). * Over five months of REM awakenings in adults going through a divorce, those still depressed at follow-up did dream about their ex partner, but the dreams lacked emotion and were not linked to other memories (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Those who recovered had emotional dreams about the same subject, so it is the emotion in the dream rather than the topic that tracks recovery (Cartwright et al., 2006). * This is the clearest evidence in the chapter that dreaming aids coping with a real stressor, and also the most fragile: one research program, with no replication using modern methods in the twenty five years since (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that feeling the loss in the dream is a better sign than dreaming about it without emotion. ===Nightmares and distress === * The two sections above asked whether dreaming helps, this subsection asks what happens when it clearly does not. * Nightmares occur weekly in roughly 4 to 10% of people, and about 4% of adults meet the criteria for nightmare disorder, so this is a common problem rather than a rare one (Nielsen & Levin, 2007; Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * Two things produce them: emotional pressure supplies the material, and a tendency to react strongly makes dreams distressing (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * The second matters more because distress predicts wellbeing better than frequency does (Blagrove et al., 2004). This is why treatment targets distress, and why Natalie's dream is a problem even though she sleeps enough. * Nightmares predicted [[w:Suicidal ideation|suicidal ideation]] in 583 students independently of insomnia, depression, anxiety and PTSD, and predicted death by suicide in 71,068 Finnish adults (Nadorff et al., 2011; Sandman et al., 2017). * They appear across disorders involving emotion dysregulation, and in children they prospectively predict later psychosocial maladjustment (Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024; Gauchat et al., 2020). * Nightmare disorder is now treated as a condition in its own right rather than only a symptom of something else, which is where section 4 begins (Gieselmann et al., 2019). <quiz display=simple> {In the diary studies described above, a more negative dream was typically followed the next morning by: |type="()"} - Better mood, as mood regulation theory predicts || Not quite. This is what the theory predicts, but it is not what was found. + Worse mood || Correct. Negative dream affect predicted a more negative next-day mood (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026). - No detectable change in mood || Not quite. There was a reliable effect, but it ran in the opposite direction to the theory. </quiz> ==Using dreams to improve coping== '''''Focus question: '''How can dreams be targeted to improve coping?'' * This section concludes that dreams can be changed deliberately and that doing so helps, though it is unclear whether the change to the dream is what helps. * That combination is the chapters central point: a dream can be a useful tool without being an automatic therapist. * These are the only randomised experiments in the chapter, so they carry the most casual weight (Gieselmann et al., 2019). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 2''' Six months on, the dream still hasn't stopped. Natalie has started staying up until she's too tired to dream, and she's tired all the time. Her psychologist suggests writing the dream down and changing what happens: this time, the person turns around, or Natalie stops calling out and walks the other way. She rehearses the new version of the dream for a few minutes every night. Within weeks the dream starts to come less often, and when it does, it bothers her less. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Rewriting the dream: imagery rehearsal therapy === * Imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) involves writing down a recurring nightmare, deliberately changing how it ends, and rehearsing the new version while awake for 10 to 20 minutes a day (Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * The logic follows the fear extinction section: rehearsing a new ending does while awake what fear extinction says a healthy dream does at night. * IRT is the only treatment the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends for nightmare disorder (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), and a network meta-analysis ranks it among the most effective options (Y. Zhang et al., 2022). * Meta-analysis finds large improvements held at 6 to 12 months, but these are the before and after effects rather than controlled ones (Casement & Swanson, 2012). * Two trials found no advantage for the rewriting itself over other sleep treatments (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019), and why IRT works is still disputed (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). * If it works through waking rehearsal and changed expectations, the dream is the target of treatment rather than the agent of change. ===Intervening during sleep itself === *The trials above leave one question: does anything happen during sleep that waking rehearsal cannot do alone? * Targeted memory reactivation tests this by pairing the new ending with a sound while awake, then replaying the sound quietly during REM sleep (Schwartz et al., 2022). * Adding the sound beat IRT alone, making this the strongest casual evidence in the chapter and the closest test of fear extinction (Schwartz et al., 2022). Though it is one small trial and needs replication. * A second approach plants dream content rather than cueing it: targeted dream incubation repeats a chosen theme at sleep onset, and 67% of prompted awakenings produced dream reports containing it, against 3% without the prompt (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * The point is methodological: a causal claim about dreaming requires manipulating dream content, which nothing in sections 1 and 3 does. Even a successful incubation cannot show whether the experience of dreaming matters or merely accompanies the work (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * Working the other way, better emotion regulation within dreams accompanied improvement during psychotherapy, so dream content may index progress as well as be a target of it (Kempe et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * Dreams like Natalie's recur because the emotional charge attached to a memory has not faded overnight. That is the problem this chapter set out to explain. * The short answer to the subtitle is that REM dreams reflect emotional processing more reliably than they perform it. Dream emotion behaves more like a thermometer than a heater: it registers how much distress someone is carrying, but there is little evidence that it is what brings the distress down. * Sleep changes emotional memories: it makes them more likely to be remembered without reliably making them feel less bad (Lipinska et al., 2022). Whether the dream contributes to that change is a separate question, and only two studies have tested it directly (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009; J. Zhang et al., 2024). * Four theories disagree about what a dream is for, they cannot be seperated by what dreams contain, only by what each predicts about the following morning (see Table 1). * The prediction that matters most for coping is the mood regulation one and it fails. Dream emotion predicts a worse next morning rather than a better one (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026), so it looks more like a sign of how well someone is coping than the thing doing the coping. * Dreams can still be changed on purpose: rewriting a recurring nightmare reduces both how often it happens and how much distress it causes (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), though whether the rewriting is the active ingredient is unresolved (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Settling the wider question means controlling dream content rather than only recording it, because a causal claim about dreaming requires dreams to be manipulated (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Natalie's dream did not repair itself, and it did not need to. What changed it was practising a new ending while awake. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A bad dream is not a sign that emotional processing is doing its job, dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it. * Dreaming may still add something, but the evidence is thin and comes from a handful of studies that could not assign anyone to dream. *"Sleep on it" is reasonable advice for retaining a memory, but not a reliable way to feel better about it. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baber, G. 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''Scientific Reports, 14''(1), Article 8722. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58170-z <!-- add article number --> Zhang, Y., Ren, R., Vitiello, M. V., Yang, L., Zhang, H., Shi, Y., Sanford, L. D., & Tang, X. (2022). Efficacy and acceptability of psychotherapeutic and pharmacological interventions for trauma-related nightmares: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. ''Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139'', 104717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104717 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] m1dnh63epgmd8ymudpdon9os09uxzv7 2830425 2830424 2026-09-02T06:48:17Z U3270398 3108645 /* Theories of emotional dream function */ rewording 2830425 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving -<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming Woman.jpg|right|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. A recurring dream after a loss keeps its emotional charge overnight, which is exactly what emotional processing during sleep is supposed to reduce.]] Natalie hasn't slept well in weeks. It's not like she's waking up screaming from a nightmare or anything that dramatic. But the same dream keeps coming back: she has been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who doesn't turn around. Her friends say it's just stress from the breakup. By lunchtime she can barely remember the details, but the feeling hangs around all day. She's isn't short on sleep, so why does she keep waking up feeling like she's already lost something? Is the dream working through her breakup, or just replaying it? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * A [[w:Dream|dream]] is a conscious experience during sleep that can be recalled on waking, and dreams reported after [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] tend to be the most vivid and the most emotional (Scarpelli et al., 2022). * Two processes are involved here, and it helps to keep them apart. Emotional processing happens overnight, when an emotional memory loses some of its intensity. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping]] happens while a person is awake, through the strategies a person uses to manage stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). The subtitle asks whether the first supports the second. * Sleep is widely described as overnight therapy: it holds onto the emotional memory but strips some of its sting by morning (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). * Very few researchers dispute that sleep does something, what they dispute is the role of the dream. Either the dream is where the emotional work happens, or it is a window into work that sleep would be doing anyway (Scarpelli, 2026). * Why does settling this matter? Because recurring distressing dreams like Natalie's (see Figure 1) are common, they appear across psychiatric disorders involving [[w:Emotional dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], and they can be treated (Casement & Swanson, 2012; Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming? * What does dreaming add beyond REM sleep? * What does dream emotion predict in waking life? * How can dreams be targeted to improve coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Dreaming and emotional processing during sleep == '''''Focus question:''' Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming?'' * Natalie's dream keeps coming back with its emotional charge intact, which is what REM sleep is supposed to prevent. Explaining why means separating two things that are easily confused: what REM sleep does to an emotional memory, and what the dream does. Most evidence addresses REM sleep, so this section covers that briefly and then asks what is known about dreaming itself. ===What sleep does === * The leading model is Walker and van der Helm's (2009) "sleep to forget, sleep to remember". During REM sleep, the brain replays [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Memory and emotion|emotional memories]] while [[w:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]] (the chemical behind the body's stress response) is switched off, so the memory is kept but the alarm attached to it fades. Note what this predicts: physical arousal should fall while the memory stays intact, so the proper test is reactivity rather than whether the memory feels less bad. * Supporting evidence: 34 adults rated the same emotional images 12 hours apart. Reactivity fell across a night and rose across a day, and the largest drop was in those whose noradrenaline was lowest during REM (van der Helm et al., 2011). * Two stronger tests disagree and they use different methods, which makes it harder to miss. A meta-analysis of 24 studies found negative images rated as more arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022), and an experiment found participants with the least REM sleep showed the greatest overnight drop in arousal (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). * So sleep preserves emotional memories more reliably than it soothes them (Lipinska et al., 2019), and the model has not yet been properly tested, because removing REM disturbs every over sleep stage as well (Pesonen et al., 2024). ===What dreaming adds === * Dreaming is not simply the conscious experience of REM sleep. Across 111 published cases, forebrain damage stopped dreaming while REM sleep continued normally (Solms, 2000), and dreaming survives drugs that suppress REM (Scarpelli et al., 2026). * Because dreaming occurs outside REM sleep, evidence about REM sleep cannot be read as evidence about REM dreams, so dreaming has to be measured directly (Solms, 2000). * Measuring dreams is difficult: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). So studies using different rating sources may not be comparable. * Very few studies measure both REM and dreaming in the same people. In one, participants whose dreams were less negative showed the greatest overnight improvement in their ratings of emotional images (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). In another, the overnight drop in reactivity appeared only in participants who recalled a dream (Zhang et al., 2024). * No study can assign anyone to dream, so the direction is unresolved. Someone already coping well might both dream less negatively and adapt better overnight, with the dream contributing nothing, and mood and REM sleep appear to influence each other in both directions (Peltz et al., 2026). * Recall creates a further problem. Whether a dream is remembered depends on the state the sleeper wakes from (Scarpelli et al., 2022), and non-recallers may have dreamed and forgotten, which makes the claim difficult to disprove. * Whether dreams regulate emotion, mirror waking concerns, or do both remains an open question (Scarpelli, 2026). Answering it requires manipulating dream content rather than recording it (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020), which is discussed further in the final section. ==Theories of emotional dream function== '''''Focus question: '''What might a dream be doing with emotion?'' *The previous section ended on an open question: whether dreams actively regulate emotion or passively mirror waking life, four theories answer it differently. Three claim dreaming does something while one claims it does not, and that is the position that the other three have to beat. They cannot be separated by dream content, because all four expect distressing dreams after distressing events. They differ in what should be true the next morning (see Table 1). [[w:Nightmare|Nightmares]] make the clearest test, because the same dream counts as either the system working for one theory and failing for another. === The continuity hypothesis === * Dreams reflect waking concerns without acting on them, so nothing more is needed to explain why Natalie dreams about being left behind (Domhoff, 2017). * This is the position that the other theories have to beat rather than fourth option sitting alongside them: showing that a dream is meaningful is not the same as showing that is does something (Domhoff, 2019). * Even continuity is contested. Judges have repeatedly failed to match dream reports to what the dreamer was concerned about the day before (Domhoff, 2017).Others argue the effect is real but selective, with emotionally salient concerns incorporated far more often than trivial ones (Schredl, 2017; Malinowski & Horton, 2015). * Applied to Natalie, continuity predicts the dream keeps reoccurring and her mood keeps tracking it, with no improvement produced by the dreaming itself. ===Threat simulation === * Here the dream adds rehearsal. Dreaming simulates threatening events and practices detecting and avoiding them. The payoff is preparedness, not comfort, so nightmares show the system working rather than failing (Revonsuo, 2000). * The supporting claim is that most dream emotion is negative and aggression is the most common social interaction in dreams (Revonsuo, 2000). However, that estimate depends on who does the rating, since dreamers rate their own dreams as mostly positive (Sikka et al., 2017). * Against it: among recurrent dreams, 34% contained no threat at all and fewer than 20% resolved one, so the theory's most specific predictions were the ones that failed (Desjardins & Zadra, 2006). It also requires implicit learning during sleep to transfer to waking behaviour, which has not been demonstrated (Domhoff, 2019). * For Natalie, It predicts a dream that leaves her better prepared for abandonment without leaving her any calmer, which is a poor fit for coping. ===Fear extinction === * Here the dream adds recombination: frightening memories are replayed in new, non-fearful settings (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] doesn't erase the fear, it builds a competing safe memory alongside it, which is why the fear returns if that new memory isn't maintained (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * On this account nightmares are a breakdown of this process, as the replay stays frightening and no safe version gets built (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * Disrupted REM sleep and impaired extinction memory have been proposed to maintain [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), which gives the model a clinical test case (Pace-Schott et al., 2015). * Cathartic dreams, which move from danger to relief, are less common in nightmare disorder than in healthy sleepers, and were the only dream type that tracked falling depression scores across therapy (Perogamvros et al., 2025). * The main criticism is that the model treats bad dreams as adaptive and nightmares as maladaptive while attributing both to a single process, and it has nothing to say about the roughly one third of dreams that are positive (Weiss, 2007). * This is the theory tested most directly in ''Using dreams to improve coping'', because sleep interventions manipulate what gets replayed. ===Mood regulation === * Here the dream adds desensitisation. Dream emotion is proposed to shift from negative toward positive across the night, so its charge is reduced by morning (Cartwright et al., 1998). This is the headline claim, and the one closest to the popular idea that dreams work through problems, and it is tested in ''Dream emotion and waking life.'' * Dreamer's own ratings of the emotional tone of their day-to-day dreams have been read as inconsistent with a mood regulation function (Barbeau et al., 2022). * The supporting evidence is real but indirect: people who report more fear in dreams show weaker fear-related brain responses when awake (Sterpenich et al., 2020). That is a correlation across people at a single time point, so it can't establish direction. * The theory makes three testable predictions for the morning after a negative dream: mood should be less negative, reactivity to negative material should be weaker, and emotion regulation should be better (Sikka et al., 2022). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that a dream should be losing intensity over time, and hers is not. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1'''<br /> ''Competing theoretical accounts of the emotional function of dreaming and their predictions'' |- ! Theory !! Core claim !! Predicts that after a distressing dream, next-day mood will be... !! What it would say about Natalie |- | '''Continuity''' || Dreams reflect waking concerns but do not act on them || Unchanged. The dream mirrors mood without moving it || The dream is an accurate reflection of the breakup and nothing more |- | '''Threat simulation''' || Dreaming rehearses detecting and avoiding threat || No better, possibly worse. The payoff is preparedness || The dream is training her for abandonment, not calming her about it |- | '''Fear extinction''' || Fear memories are replayed in safe new contexts, building a competing safe memory || Better if extinction succeeds. Unchanged or worse if it fails || Her dream failed replay: fear is rehearsed but no safe version is built. |- | '''Mood regulation''' || Dream emotion shifts from negative toward positive overnight, discharging its intensity || Better: less negative mood, weaker reactivity, better regulation || The dream should be fading week by week, and it is not |- |} ==Dream emotion and waking life == '''''Focus question: '''What does dream emotion predict in waking life?'' * This evidence here points one way: dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it, and the mood regulation predictions largely fail. * Dreaming only counts as coping if dream emotion predicts something measurable while the person is awake (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). One objection is that a sleeping person cannot be trying to cope, but emotion regulation doesn't have to be conscious or deliberate to count as regulation, so this doesn't rule dreaming out (Gross, 2015). * Almost all the evidence below is correlational, which is why the experimental interventions in the next section carry more weight (Peltz et al., 2026) Evidence is examined at three points: the next morning, a major life stressor, and the point at which dreaming becomes a clinical problem. ===Dream emotion and next-day mood === *Across five days in 40 adults, more negative dream emotion predicted a more negative morning, with no effect on reactivity to negative images or on the ability to down-regulate them (Sikka et al., 2022). *All three mood predictions therefore failed, and the one effect that emerged ran opposite to the theory. *A much larger study found the same: across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were followed by more negative mood the next morning (Baber et al., 2026). *The same study found the reverse between people, with those who had more frightening dreams overall regulating emotion better when awake (Baber et al., 2026). Dream fear may therefore mark who copes well rather than support their coping. *Nights with no remembered dream showed no change in negative emotion at all, which is one of the few findings suggesting the dream itself adds something beyond REM sleep (Tousignant et al., 2022). *Results also depend on who rates them: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). Some disagreement between studies above may be disagreement about measurement. ===Dreaming and major life stress === * The diary studies above followed people with little to regulate, so this sub-section asks what happens when there is real distress (Cartwright et al., 1998). * Over five months of REM awakenings in adults going through a divorce, those still depressed at follow-up did dream about their ex partner, but the dreams lacked emotion and were not linked to other memories (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Those who recovered had emotional dreams about the same subject, so it is the emotion in the dream rather than the topic that tracks recovery (Cartwright et al., 2006). * This is the clearest evidence in the chapter that dreaming aids coping with a real stressor, and also the most fragile: one research program, with no replication using modern methods in the twenty five years since (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that feeling the loss in the dream is a better sign than dreaming about it without emotion. ===Nightmares and distress === * The two sections above asked whether dreaming helps, this subsection asks what happens when it clearly does not. * Nightmares occur weekly in roughly 4 to 10% of people, and about 4% of adults meet the criteria for nightmare disorder, so this is a common problem rather than a rare one (Nielsen & Levin, 2007; Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * Two things produce them: emotional pressure supplies the material, and a tendency to react strongly makes dreams distressing (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * The second matters more because distress predicts wellbeing better than frequency does (Blagrove et al., 2004). This is why treatment targets distress, and why Natalie's dream is a problem even though she sleeps enough. * Nightmares predicted [[w:Suicidal ideation|suicidal ideation]] in 583 students independently of insomnia, depression, anxiety and PTSD, and predicted death by suicide in 71,068 Finnish adults (Nadorff et al., 2011; Sandman et al., 2017). * They appear across disorders involving emotion dysregulation, and in children they prospectively predict later psychosocial maladjustment (Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024; Gauchat et al., 2020). * Nightmare disorder is now treated as a condition in its own right rather than only a symptom of something else, which is where section 4 begins (Gieselmann et al., 2019). <quiz display=simple> {In the diary studies described above, a more negative dream was typically followed the next morning by: |type="()"} - Better mood, as mood regulation theory predicts || Not quite. This is what the theory predicts, but it is not what was found. + Worse mood || Correct. Negative dream affect predicted a more negative next-day mood (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026). - No detectable change in mood || Not quite. There was a reliable effect, but it ran in the opposite direction to the theory. </quiz> ==Using dreams to improve coping== '''''Focus question: '''How can dreams be targeted to improve coping?'' * This section concludes that dreams can be changed deliberately and that doing so helps, though it is unclear whether the change to the dream is what helps. * That combination is the chapters central point: a dream can be a useful tool without being an automatic therapist. * These are the only randomised experiments in the chapter, so they carry the most casual weight (Gieselmann et al., 2019). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 2''' Six months on, the dream still hasn't stopped. Natalie has started staying up until she's too tired to dream, and she's tired all the time. Her psychologist suggests writing the dream down and changing what happens: this time, the person turns around, or Natalie stops calling out and walks the other way. She rehearses the new version of the dream for a few minutes every night. Within weeks the dream starts to come less often, and when it does, it bothers her less. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Rewriting the dream: imagery rehearsal therapy === * Imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) involves writing down a recurring nightmare, deliberately changing how it ends, and rehearsing the new version while awake for 10 to 20 minutes a day (Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * The logic follows the fear extinction section: rehearsing a new ending does while awake what fear extinction says a healthy dream does at night. * IRT is the only treatment the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends for nightmare disorder (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), and a network meta-analysis ranks it among the most effective options (Y. Zhang et al., 2022). * Meta-analysis finds large improvements held at 6 to 12 months, but these are the before and after effects rather than controlled ones (Casement & Swanson, 2012). * Two trials found no advantage for the rewriting itself over other sleep treatments (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019), and why IRT works is still disputed (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). * If it works through waking rehearsal and changed expectations, the dream is the target of treatment rather than the agent of change. ===Intervening during sleep itself === *The trials above leave one question: does anything happen during sleep that waking rehearsal cannot do alone? * Targeted memory reactivation tests this by pairing the new ending with a sound while awake, then replaying the sound quietly during REM sleep (Schwartz et al., 2022). * Adding the sound beat IRT alone, making this the strongest casual evidence in the chapter and the closest test of fear extinction (Schwartz et al., 2022). Though it is one small trial and needs replication. * A second approach plants dream content rather than cueing it: targeted dream incubation repeats a chosen theme at sleep onset, and 67% of prompted awakenings produced dream reports containing it, against 3% without the prompt (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * The point is methodological: a causal claim about dreaming requires manipulating dream content, which nothing in sections 1 and 3 does. Even a successful incubation cannot show whether the experience of dreaming matters or merely accompanies the work (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * Working the other way, better emotion regulation within dreams accompanied improvement during psychotherapy, so dream content may index progress as well as be a target of it (Kempe et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * Dreams like Natalie's recur because the emotional charge attached to a memory has not faded overnight. That is the problem this chapter set out to explain. * The short answer to the subtitle is that REM dreams reflect emotional processing more reliably than they perform it. Dream emotion behaves more like a thermometer than a heater: it registers how much distress someone is carrying, but there is little evidence that it is what brings the distress down. * Sleep changes emotional memories: it makes them more likely to be remembered without reliably making them feel less bad (Lipinska et al., 2022). Whether the dream contributes to that change is a separate question, and only two studies have tested it directly (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009; J. Zhang et al., 2024). * Four theories disagree about what a dream is for, they cannot be seperated by what dreams contain, only by what each predicts about the following morning (see Table 1). * The prediction that matters most for coping is the mood regulation one and it fails. Dream emotion predicts a worse next morning rather than a better one (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026), so it looks more like a sign of how well someone is coping than the thing doing the coping. * Dreams can still be changed on purpose: rewriting a recurring nightmare reduces both how often it happens and how much distress it causes (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), though whether the rewriting is the active ingredient is unresolved (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Settling the wider question means controlling dream content rather than only recording it, because a causal claim about dreaming requires dreams to be manipulated (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Natalie's dream did not repair itself, and it did not need to. What changed it was practising a new ending while awake. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A bad dream is not a sign that emotional processing is doing its job, dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it. * Dreaming may still add something, but the evidence is thin and comes from a handful of studies that could not assign anyone to dream. *"Sleep on it" is reasonable advice for retaining a memory, but not a reliable way to feel better about it. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baber, G. 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''Scientific Reports, 14''(1), Article 8722. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58170-z <!-- add article number --> Zhang, Y., Ren, R., Vitiello, M. V., Yang, L., Zhang, H., Shi, Y., Sanford, L. D., & Tang, X. (2022). Efficacy and acceptability of psychotherapeutic and pharmacological interventions for trauma-related nightmares: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. ''Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139'', 104717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104717 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] qkhsge600ap0fhedh5xgk23ch41swqw 2830427 2830425 2026-09-02T07:51:44Z U3270398 3108645 /* The continuity hypothesis */ 2830427 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving -<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming Woman.jpg|right|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. A recurring dream after a loss keeps its emotional charge overnight, which is exactly what emotional processing during sleep is supposed to reduce.]] Natalie hasn't slept well in weeks. It's not like she's waking up screaming from a nightmare or anything that dramatic. But the same dream keeps coming back: she has been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who doesn't turn around. Her friends say it's just stress from the breakup. By lunchtime she can barely remember the details, but the feeling hangs around all day. She's isn't short on sleep, so why does she keep waking up feeling like she's already lost something? Is the dream working through her breakup, or just replaying it? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * A [[w:Dream|dream]] is a conscious experience during sleep that can be recalled on waking, and dreams reported after [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] tend to be the most vivid and the most emotional (Scarpelli et al., 2022). * Two processes are involved here, and it helps to keep them apart. Emotional processing happens overnight, when an emotional memory loses some of its intensity. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping]] happens while a person is awake, through the strategies a person uses to manage stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). The subtitle asks whether the first supports the second. * Sleep is widely described as overnight therapy: it holds onto the emotional memory but strips some of its sting by morning (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). * Very few researchers dispute that sleep does something, what they dispute is the role of the dream. Either the dream is where the emotional work happens, or it is a window into work that sleep would be doing anyway (Scarpelli, 2026). * Why does settling this matter? Because recurring distressing dreams like Natalie's (see Figure 1) are common, they appear across psychiatric disorders involving [[w:Emotional dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], and they can be treated (Casement & Swanson, 2012; Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming? * What does dreaming add beyond REM sleep? * What does dream emotion predict in waking life? * How can dreams be targeted to improve coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Dreaming and emotional processing during sleep == '''''Focus question:''' Does emotional processing during sleep depend on dreaming?'' * Natalie's dream keeps coming back with its emotional charge intact, which is what REM sleep is supposed to prevent. Explaining why means separating two things that are easily confused: what REM sleep does to an emotional memory, and what the dream does. Most evidence addresses REM sleep, so this section covers that briefly and then asks what is known about dreaming itself. ===What sleep does === * The leading model is Walker and van der Helm's (2009) "sleep to forget, sleep to remember". During REM sleep, the brain replays [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Memory and emotion|emotional memories]] while [[w:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]] (the chemical behind the body's stress response) is switched off, so the memory is kept but the alarm attached to it fades. Note what this predicts: physical arousal should fall while the memory stays intact, so the proper test is reactivity rather than whether the memory feels less bad. * Supporting evidence: 34 adults rated the same emotional images 12 hours apart. Reactivity fell across a night and rose across a day, and the largest drop was in those whose noradrenaline was lowest during REM (van der Helm et al., 2011). * Two stronger tests disagree and they use different methods, which makes it harder to miss. A meta-analysis of 24 studies found negative images rated as more arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022), and an experiment found participants with the least REM sleep showed the greatest overnight drop in arousal (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). * So sleep preserves emotional memories more reliably than it soothes them (Lipinska et al., 2019), and the model has not yet been properly tested, because removing REM disturbs every over sleep stage as well (Pesonen et al., 2024). ===What dreaming adds === * Dreaming is not simply the conscious experience of REM sleep. Across 111 published cases, forebrain damage stopped dreaming while REM sleep continued normally (Solms, 2000), and dreaming survives drugs that suppress REM (Scarpelli et al., 2026). * Because dreaming occurs outside REM sleep, evidence about REM sleep cannot be read as evidence about REM dreams, so dreaming has to be measured directly (Solms, 2000). * Measuring dreams is difficult: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). So studies using different rating sources may not be comparable. * Very few studies measure both REM and dreaming in the same people. In one, participants whose dreams were less negative showed the greatest overnight improvement in their ratings of emotional images (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009). In another, the overnight drop in reactivity appeared only in participants who recalled a dream (Zhang et al., 2024). * No study can assign anyone to dream, so the direction is unresolved. Someone already coping well might both dream less negatively and adapt better overnight, with the dream contributing nothing, and mood and REM sleep appear to influence each other in both directions (Peltz et al., 2026). * Recall creates a further problem. Whether a dream is remembered depends on the state the sleeper wakes from (Scarpelli et al., 2022), and non-recallers may have dreamed and forgotten, which makes the claim difficult to disprove. * Whether dreams regulate emotion, mirror waking concerns, or do both remains an open question (Scarpelli, 2026). Answering it requires manipulating dream content rather than recording it (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020), which is discussed further in the final section. ==Theories of emotional dream function== '''''Focus question: '''What might a dream be doing with emotion?'' *The previous section ended on an open question: whether dreams actively regulate emotion or passively mirror waking life. Four theories answer it differently: three claim dreaming does something while one claims it does not, and that is the position that the other three have to beat. They cannot be separated by dream content, because all four expect distressing dreams after distressing events. They differ in what should be true the next morning (see Table 1). [[w:Nightmare|Nightmares]] make the clearest test among the three function theories, because the same dream counts as either the system working for one theory and failing for another. === The continuity hypothesis === * Dreams reflect waking concerns without acting on them, so nothing more is needed to explain why Natalie dreams about being left behind (Domhoff, 2017). * This is the position that the other theories have to beat rather than fourth option sitting alongside them: showing that a dream is meaningful is not the same as showing that is does something (Domhoff, 2019). * Even continuity is contested. Judges have repeatedly failed to match dream reports to what the dreamer was concerned about the day before (Domhoff, 2017). Others argue the effect is real but selective, with emotionally salient concerns incorporated far more often than trivial ones (Schredl, 2017; Malinowski & Horton, 2015). * Applied to Natalie, continuity predicts the dream keeps reoccurring and her mood keeps tracking it, with no improvement produced by the dreaming itself. ===Threat simulation === * Here the dream adds rehearsal. Dreaming simulates threatening events and practices detecting and avoiding them. The payoff is preparedness, not comfort, so nightmares show the system working rather than failing (Revonsuo, 2000). * The supporting claim is that most dream emotion is negative and aggression is the most common social interaction in dreams (Revonsuo, 2000). However, that estimate depends on who does the rating, since dreamers rate their own dreams as mostly positive (Sikka et al., 2017). * Against it: among recurrent dreams, 34% contained no threat at all and fewer than 20% resolved one, so the theory's most specific predictions were the ones that failed (Desjardins & Zadra, 2006). It also requires implicit learning during sleep to transfer to waking behaviour, which has not been demonstrated (Domhoff, 2019). * For Natalie, It predicts a dream that leaves her better prepared for abandonment without leaving her any calmer, which is a poor fit for coping. ===Fear extinction === * Here the dream adds recombination: frightening memories are replayed in new, non-fearful settings (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] doesn't erase the fear, it builds a competing safe memory alongside it, which is why the fear returns if that new memory isn't maintained (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * On this account nightmares are a breakdown of this process, as the replay stays frightening and no safe version gets built (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * Disrupted REM sleep and impaired extinction memory have been proposed to maintain [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), which gives the model a clinical test case (Pace-Schott et al., 2015). * Cathartic dreams, which move from danger to relief, are less common in nightmare disorder than in healthy sleepers, and were the only dream type that tracked falling depression scores across therapy (Perogamvros et al., 2025). * The main criticism is that the model treats bad dreams as adaptive and nightmares as maladaptive while attributing both to a single process, and it has nothing to say about the roughly one third of dreams that are positive (Weiss, 2007). * This is the theory tested most directly in ''Using dreams to improve coping'', because sleep interventions manipulate what gets replayed. ===Mood regulation === * Here the dream adds desensitisation. Dream emotion is proposed to shift from negative toward positive across the night, so its charge is reduced by morning (Cartwright et al., 1998). This is the headline claim, and the one closest to the popular idea that dreams work through problems, and it is tested in ''Dream emotion and waking life.'' * Dreamer's own ratings of the emotional tone of their day-to-day dreams have been read as inconsistent with a mood regulation function (Barbeau et al., 2022). * The supporting evidence is real but indirect: people who report more fear in dreams show weaker fear-related brain responses when awake (Sterpenich et al., 2020). That is a correlation across people at a single time point, so it can't establish direction. * The theory makes three testable predictions for the morning after a negative dream: mood should be less negative, reactivity to negative material should be weaker, and emotion regulation should be better (Sikka et al., 2022). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that a dream should be losing intensity over time, and hers is not. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1'''<br /> ''Competing theoretical accounts of the emotional function of dreaming and their predictions'' |- ! Theory !! Core claim !! Predicts that after a distressing dream, next-day mood will be... !! What it would say about Natalie |- | '''Continuity''' || Dreams reflect waking concerns but do not act on them || Unchanged. The dream mirrors mood without moving it || The dream is an accurate reflection of the breakup and nothing more |- | '''Threat simulation''' || Dreaming rehearses detecting and avoiding threat || No better, possibly worse. The payoff is preparedness || The dream is training her for abandonment, not calming her about it |- | '''Fear extinction''' || Fear memories are replayed in safe new contexts, building a competing safe memory || Better if extinction succeeds. Unchanged or worse if it fails || Her dream failed replay: fear is rehearsed but no safe version is built. |- | '''Mood regulation''' || Dream emotion shifts from negative toward positive overnight, discharging its intensity || Better: less negative mood, weaker reactivity, better regulation || The dream should be fading week by week, and it is not |- |} ==Dream emotion and waking life == '''''Focus question: '''What does dream emotion predict in waking life?'' * This evidence here points one way: dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it, and the mood regulation predictions largely fail. * Dreaming only counts as coping if dream emotion predicts something measurable while the person is awake (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). One objection is that a sleeping person cannot be trying to cope, but emotion regulation doesn't have to be conscious or deliberate to count as regulation, so this doesn't rule dreaming out (Gross, 2015). * Almost all the evidence below is correlational, which is why the experimental interventions in the next section carry more weight (Peltz et al., 2026) Evidence is examined at three points: the next morning, a major life stressor, and the point at which dreaming becomes a clinical problem. ===Dream emotion and next-day mood === *Across five days in 40 adults, more negative dream emotion predicted a more negative morning, with no effect on reactivity to negative images or on the ability to down-regulate them (Sikka et al., 2022). *All three mood predictions therefore failed, and the one effect that emerged ran opposite to the theory. *A much larger study found the same: across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were followed by more negative mood the next morning (Baber et al., 2026). *The same study found the reverse between people, with those who had more frightening dreams overall regulating emotion better when awake (Baber et al., 2026). Dream fear may therefore mark who copes well rather than support their coping. *Nights with no remembered dream showed no change in negative emotion at all, which is one of the few findings suggesting the dream itself adds something beyond REM sleep (Tousignant et al., 2022). *Results also depend on who rates them: across 552 home dreams, dreamers rated their own as mostly positive while judges rated the same dreams as mostly negative (Sikka et al., 2017). Some disagreement between studies above may be disagreement about measurement. ===Dreaming and major life stress === * The diary studies above followed people with little to regulate, so this sub-section asks what happens when there is real distress (Cartwright et al., 1998). * Over five months of REM awakenings in adults going through a divorce, those still depressed at follow-up did dream about their ex partner, but the dreams lacked emotion and were not linked to other memories (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Those who recovered had emotional dreams about the same subject, so it is the emotion in the dream rather than the topic that tracks recovery (Cartwright et al., 2006). * This is the clearest evidence in the chapter that dreaming aids coping with a real stressor, and also the most fragile: one research program, with no replication using modern methods in the twenty five years since (Cartwright et al., 2006). * Applied to Natalie, it predicts that feeling the loss in the dream is a better sign than dreaming about it without emotion. ===Nightmares and distress === * The two sections above asked whether dreaming helps, this subsection asks what happens when it clearly does not. * Nightmares occur weekly in roughly 4 to 10% of people, and about 4% of adults meet the criteria for nightmare disorder, so this is a common problem rather than a rare one (Nielsen & Levin, 2007; Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * Two things produce them: emotional pressure supplies the material, and a tendency to react strongly makes dreams distressing (Nielsen & Levin, 2007). * The second matters more because distress predicts wellbeing better than frequency does (Blagrove et al., 2004). This is why treatment targets distress, and why Natalie's dream is a problem even though she sleeps enough. * Nightmares predicted [[w:Suicidal ideation|suicidal ideation]] in 583 students independently of insomnia, depression, anxiety and PTSD, and predicted death by suicide in 71,068 Finnish adults (Nadorff et al., 2011; Sandman et al., 2017). * They appear across disorders involving emotion dysregulation, and in children they prospectively predict later psychosocial maladjustment (Mendoza Alvarez et al., 2024; Gauchat et al., 2020). * Nightmare disorder is now treated as a condition in its own right rather than only a symptom of something else, which is where section 4 begins (Gieselmann et al., 2019). <quiz display=simple> {In the diary studies described above, a more negative dream was typically followed the next morning by: |type="()"} - Better mood, as mood regulation theory predicts || Not quite. This is what the theory predicts, but it is not what was found. + Worse mood || Correct. Negative dream affect predicted a more negative next-day mood (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026). - No detectable change in mood || Not quite. There was a reliable effect, but it ran in the opposite direction to the theory. </quiz> ==Using dreams to improve coping== '''''Focus question: '''How can dreams be targeted to improve coping?'' * This section concludes that dreams can be changed deliberately and that doing so helps, though it is unclear whether the change to the dream is what helps. * That combination is the chapters central point: a dream can be a useful tool without being an automatic therapist. * These are the only randomised experiments in the chapter, so they carry the most casual weight (Gieselmann et al., 2019). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: part 2''' Six months on, the dream still hasn't stopped. Natalie has started staying up until she's too tired to dream, and she's tired all the time. Her psychologist suggests writing the dream down and changing what happens: this time, the person turns around, or Natalie stops calling out and walks the other way. She rehearses the new version of the dream for a few minutes every night. Within weeks the dream starts to come less often, and when it does, it bothers her less. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Rewriting the dream: imagery rehearsal therapy === * Imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) involves writing down a recurring nightmare, deliberately changing how it ends, and rehearsing the new version while awake for 10 to 20 minutes a day (Morgenthaler et al., 2018). * The logic follows the fear extinction section: rehearsing a new ending does while awake what fear extinction says a healthy dream does at night. * IRT is the only treatment the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends for nightmare disorder (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), and a network meta-analysis ranks it among the most effective options (Y. Zhang et al., 2022). * Meta-analysis finds large improvements held at 6 to 12 months, but these are the before and after effects rather than controlled ones (Casement & Swanson, 2012). * Two trials found no advantage for the rewriting itself over other sleep treatments (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019), and why IRT works is still disputed (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). * If it works through waking rehearsal and changed expectations, the dream is the target of treatment rather than the agent of change. ===Intervening during sleep itself === *The trials above leave one question: does anything happen during sleep that waking rehearsal cannot do alone? * Targeted memory reactivation tests this by pairing the new ending with a sound while awake, then replaying the sound quietly during REM sleep (Schwartz et al., 2022). * Adding the sound beat IRT alone, making this the strongest casual evidence in the chapter and the closest test of fear extinction (Schwartz et al., 2022). Though it is one small trial and needs replication. * A second approach plants dream content rather than cueing it: targeted dream incubation repeats a chosen theme at sleep onset, and 67% of prompted awakenings produced dream reports containing it, against 3% without the prompt (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * The point is methodological: a causal claim about dreaming requires manipulating dream content, which nothing in sections 1 and 3 does. Even a successful incubation cannot show whether the experience of dreaming matters or merely accompanies the work (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). * Working the other way, better emotion regulation within dreams accompanied improvement during psychotherapy, so dream content may index progress as well as be a target of it (Kempe et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * Dreams like Natalie's recur because the emotional charge attached to a memory has not faded overnight. That is the problem this chapter set out to explain. * The short answer to the subtitle is that REM dreams reflect emotional processing more reliably than they perform it. Dream emotion behaves more like a thermometer than a heater: it registers how much distress someone is carrying, but there is little evidence that it is what brings the distress down. * Sleep changes emotional memories: it makes them more likely to be remembered without reliably making them feel less bad (Lipinska et al., 2022). Whether the dream contributes to that change is a separate question, and only two studies have tested it directly (Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009; J. Zhang et al., 2024). * Four theories disagree about what a dream is for, they cannot be seperated by what dreams contain, only by what each predicts about the following morning (see Table 1). * The prediction that matters most for coping is the mood regulation one and it fails. Dream emotion predicts a worse next morning rather than a better one (Sikka et al., 2022; Baber et al., 2026), so it looks more like a sign of how well someone is coping than the thing doing the coping. * Dreams can still be changed on purpose: rewriting a recurring nightmare reduces both how often it happens and how much distress it causes (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), though whether the rewriting is the active ingredient is unresolved (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Settling the wider question means controlling dream content rather than only recording it, because a causal claim about dreaming requires dreams to be manipulated (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020; Schwartz et al., 2022). * Natalie's dream did not repair itself, and it did not need to. What changed it was practising a new ending while awake. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A bad dream is not a sign that emotional processing is doing its job, dream emotion tracks distress rather than relieving it. * Dreaming may still add something, but the evidence is thin and comes from a handful of studies that could not assign anyone to dream. *"Sleep on it" is reasonable advice for retaining a memory, but not a reliable way to feel better about it. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baber, G. 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''Sleep Medicine, 127'', 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2024.12.037 Morgenthaler, T. I., Auerbach, S., Casey, K. R., Kristo, D., Maganti, R., Ramar, K., Zak, R., & Kartje, R. (2018). Position paper for the treatment of nightmare disorder in adults: An American Academy of Sleep Medicine position paper. ''Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 14''(6), 1041–1055. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7178 Nadorff, M. R., Nazem, S., & Fiske, A. (2011). Insomnia symptoms, nightmares, and suicidal ideation in a college student sample. ''Sleep, 34''(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/34.1.93 Nielsen, T., & Levin, R. (2007). Nightmares: A new neurocognitive model. ''Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11''(4), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2007.03.004 Pace-Schott, E. F., Germain, A., & Milad, M. R. (2015). Sleep and REM sleep disturbance in the pathophysiology of PTSD: The role of extinction memory. 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The effect of REM-sleep disruption on affective processing: A systematic review of human and animal experimental studies. ''Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 162'', 105714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105714 Revonsuo, A. (2000). The reinterpretation of dreams: An evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23''(6), 877–901. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00004015 Rousseau, A., & Belleville, G. (2018). The mechanisms of action underlying the efficacy of psychological nightmare treatments: A systematic review and thematic analysis of discussed hypotheses. ''Sleep Medicine Reviews, 39'', 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.08.004 Sandman, N., Valli, K., Kronholm, E., Vartiainen, E., Laatikainen, T., & Paunio, T. (2017). Nightmares as predictors of suicide: An extension study including war veterans. ''Scientific Reports, 7'', 44756. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep44756 Scarpelli, S. (2026). Emotional regulation or just continuity? Rethinking the emotional function of dreaming in the age of computational sleep science. ''Sleep (New York, N.Y.), 49''(5),1. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaf375 Scarpelli, S., Alfonsi, V., Gorgoni, M., & De Gennaro, L. (2022). What about dreams? State of the art and open questions. ''Journal of Sleep Research, 31''(4), e13609. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13609 Schredl, M. (2017). Theorizing about the continuity between waking and dreaming: Comment on Domhoff (2017). ''Dreaming, 27''(4), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000062 Schwartz, S., Clerget, A., & Perogamvros, L. (2022). Enhancing imagery rehearsal therapy for nightmares with targeted memory reactivation. ''Current Biology, 32''(22), 4808-4816.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.032 Sikka, P., Engelbrektsson, H., Zhang, J., & Gross, J. J. (2022). Negative dream affect is associated with next-day affect level, but not with affect reactivity or affect regulation. ''Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 16'', 981289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.981289 Sikka, P., Feilhauer, D., Valli, K., & Revonsuo, A. (2017). How you measure is what you get: Differences in self- and external ratings of emotional experiences in home dreams. ''The American Journal of Psychology, 130''(3), 367–384. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.3.0367 Solms, M. (2000). Dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23''(6), 843–850. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00003988 Sterpenich, V., Perogamvros, L., Tononi, G., & Schwartz, S. (2020). Fear in dreams and in wakefulness: Evidence for day/night affective homeostasis. ''Human Brain Mapping, 41''(3), 840–850. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24843 Tousignant, O. H., Glass, D. J., Suvak, M. K., & Fireman, G. D. (2022). Nightmares and nondisturbed dreams impact daily change in negative emotion. ''Dreaming (New York, N.Y.), 32''(3),292-313. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000213 van der Helm, E., Yao, J., Dutt, S., Rao, V., Saletin, J. M., & Walker, M. P. (2011). REM sleep depotentiates amygdala activity to previous emotional experiences. ''Current Biology, 21''(23), 2029–2032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.052 Walker, M. P., & van der Helm, E. (2009). Overnight therapy? The role of sleep in emotional brain processing. ''Psychological Bulletin, 135''(5), 731–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016570 Weiss, D. S. (2007). Conundrums in a theory of disturbed dreaming: Comment on Levin and Nielsen (2007). ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(3), 529–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.529 Zhang, J., Pena, A., Delano, N., Sattari, N., Shuster, A. E., Baker, F. C., Simon, K., & Mednick, S. C. (2024). Evidence of an active role of dreaming in emotional memory processing shows that we dream to forget. ''Scientific Reports, 14''(1), Article 8722. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58170-z <!-- add article number --> Zhang, Y., Ren, R., Vitiello, M. V., Yang, L., Zhang, H., Shi, Y., Sanford, L. D., & Tang, X. (2022). Efficacy and acceptability of psychotherapeutic and pharmacological interventions for trauma-related nightmares: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. ''Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139'', 104717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104717 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 78zdkalh1zeplk8m5q56nrg8erc3x4q 0 330078 2830345 2826040 2026-09-02T01:47:50Z Ckopplemann 3108346 dot point three and four complete 2830345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}}__TOC__{{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|120px|Figure 1. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] A university student is up late studying for their final exam, they're under considerable stress and are experiencing a strong desire to use their vape. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and rewarding as they can not focus on anything else. Eventually they use their vape, however the experience is disappointing and uncomfortable. The taste is unpleasant and they now feel nauseous, the expected satisfaction is breif. Despite this, the craving later returns. Why can the anticipation of a experience create such a strong motivation when the experience itself involves little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure refers to epxerienced when thinking about or expecting a future rewarding experience. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of wanting. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the "in the moment experience of pleasure". *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure and the participants willingness to expand effort for monetary rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === == Dopamine and reward anticipation == === The dopamine reward system === === Reward prediction and learning === == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] ldrxpfsxqbzwfokysyug6za1zd6ncy8 2830349 2830345 2026-09-02T01:57:43Z Ckopplemann 3108346 2830349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}}__TOC__{{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|120px|Figure 1. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] A university student is up late studying for their final exam, they're under considerable stress and are experiencing a strong desire to use their vape. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and rewarding as they can not focus on anything else. Eventually they use their vape, however the experience is disappointing and uncomfortable. The taste is unpleasant and they now feel nauseous, the expected satisfaction is breif. Despite this, the craving later returns. Why can the anticipation of a experience create such a strong motivation when the experience itself involves little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure refers to epxerienced when thinking about or expecting a future rewarding experience. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of wanting. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the "in the moment experience of pleasure". *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure and the participants willingness to expand effort for monetary rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure influence motivation and behaviour? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation, prediction and learning? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence behaviours such as sexual desire, gambling and substance use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === == Dopamine and reward anticipation == === The dopamine reward system === === Reward prediction and learning === == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] ljlkajw57no5xsykm08zhr7burnqedd 2830356 2830349 2026-09-02T03:01:14Z Ckopplemann 3108346 three points for pleasure anticipation and motivation section complete 2830356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}}__TOC__{{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|120px|Figure 1. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] A university student is up late studying for their final exam, they're under considerable stress and are experiencing a strong desire to use their vape. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and rewarding as they can not focus on anything else. Eventually they use their vape, however the experience is disappointing and uncomfortable. The taste is unpleasant and they now feel nauseous, the expected satisfaction is breif. Despite this, the craving later returns. Why can the anticipation of a experience create such a strong motivation when the experience itself involves little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure refers to epxerienced when thinking about or expecting a future rewarding experience. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of wanting. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the "in the moment experience of pleasure". *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure and the participants willingness to expand effort for monetary rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure influence motivation and behaviour? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation, prediction and learning? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence behaviours such as sexual desire, gambling and substance use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward and consummatory pleasure while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure - Gard et al. (2006) === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned when thinking about anticipating a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates antipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006) found that the two components are strongly correlated however represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour - Geanney et al. (2015) === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. * Anticipatory pleasure predicted effort towards reward. It was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivated behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. == Dopamine and reward anticipation == === The dopamine reward system === === Reward prediction and learning === == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] kckh8jk1whhkalosjwsdlzrrr1srpjc 2830367 2830356 2026-09-02T03:25:48Z Ckopplemann 3108346 dopamine and reward anticipation dot points complete 2830367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}}__TOC__{{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|120px|Figure 1. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] A university student is up late studying for their final exam, they're under considerable stress and are experiencing a strong desire to use their vape. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and rewarding as they can not focus on anything else. Eventually they use their vape, however the experience is disappointing and uncomfortable. The taste is unpleasant and they now feel nauseous, the expected satisfaction is breif. Despite this, the craving later returns. Why can the anticipation of a experience create such a strong motivation when the experience itself involves little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure refers to epxerienced when thinking about or expecting a future rewarding experience. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of wanting. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the "in the moment experience of pleasure". *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure and the participants willingness to expand effort for monetary rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure influence motivation and behaviour? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation, prediction and learning? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence behaviours such as sexual desire, gambling and substance use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward and consummatory pleasure while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure - Gard et al. (2006) === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned when thinking about anticipating a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates antipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006) found that the two components are strongly correlated however represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour - Geanney et al. (2015) === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. * Anticipatory pleasure predicted effort towards reward. It was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivated behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. == Dopamine and reward anticipation == * Dopamine plays an key role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. * Dopamine activity can respond to cues that predict future rewards, allowing these cues to gain motivation significance. * Errors in reward prediction can help individuals learn differences between expected and experienced rewards. === The dopamine reward system - Nasser et. al., 2017 === * Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in the brains connected reward systems in the limbic regions and contributes to reward related learning and motivation. * Dopamine neurons in the midbrain respond to unexpected rewards. As learning takes place, dopamine activity can begin responding to the cue that signals the upcoming reward. * Reward predicting cues can then therefore become motivationally significant. Once a cue becomes associated with a reward it can then encourage future behaviour in regards to obtaining a reward. === Reward prediction and learning - Nasser et. al., 2017 === * Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward thats actually received. * When a reward is greater then originally predicted that is described as the positive prediction error, while when a reward is less than predicted, a negative prediction error is produced. * Prediction errors support learning by updating an individuals predictions of future rewards. Overtime, this can allow cues to become associated with particular rewards and either positively or negatively influence future decisions. == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] 52vy6vg3dy2d6pvusz7lgjelvbaa6zx 2830372 2830367 2026-09-02T04:05:32Z Ckopplemann 3108346 Wanting, liking and incentive salience dot points completed 2830372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}}__TOC__{{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|120px|Figure 1. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] A university student is up late studying for their final exam, they're under considerable stress and are experiencing a strong desire to use their vape. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and rewarding as they can not focus on anything else. Eventually they use their vape, however the experience is disappointing and uncomfortable. The taste is unpleasant and they now feel nauseous, the expected satisfaction is breif. Despite this, the craving later returns. Why can the anticipation of a experience create such a strong motivation when the experience itself involves little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure refers to epxerienced when thinking about or expecting a future rewarding experience. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of wanting. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the "in the moment experience of pleasure". *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure and the participants willingness to expand effort for monetary rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure influence motivation and behaviour? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation, prediction and learning? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence behaviours such as sexual desire, gambling and substance use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward and consummatory pleasure while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure - Gard et al. (2006) === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned when thinking about anticipating a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates antipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006) found that the two components are strongly correlated however represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour - Geanney et al. (2015) === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. * Anticipatory pleasure predicted effort towards reward. It was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivated behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. == Dopamine and reward anticipation == * Dopamine plays an key role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. * Dopamine activity can respond to cues that predict future rewards, allowing these cues to gain motivation significance. * Errors in reward prediction can help individuals learn differences between expected and experienced rewards. === The dopamine reward system - Nasser et. al., 2017 === * Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in the brains connected reward systems in the limbic regions and contributes to reward related learning and motivation. * Dopamine neurons in the midbrain respond to unexpected rewards. As learning takes place, dopamine activity can begin responding to the cue that signals the upcoming reward. * Reward predicting cues can then therefore become motivationally significant. Once a cue becomes associated with a reward it can then encourage future behaviour in regards to obtaining a reward. === Reward prediction and learning - Nasser et. al., 2017 === * Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward thats actually received. * When a reward is greater then originally predicted that is described as the positive prediction error, while when a reward is less than predicted, a negative prediction error is produced. * Prediction errors support learning by updating an individuals predictions of future rewards. Overtime, this can allow cues to become associated with particular rewards and either positively or negatively influence future decisions. == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == * Reward involves seperate processes of 'wanting' and 'liking', which often influenced reward seeking behaviour. * 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to pursue a reward, whereas 'liking' refers to the pleasure experienced when the reward is received. * Incentive salience can influence motivational value of rewarding cues, meaning an indivdual may strongly 'want' a reward without necessarily experinecing that same level of 'liking' the reward. === Wanting versus liking - Berridge & Robinson (2016) === * 'Wanting' and 'liking' are two seperate components of reward. 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to obtain a reward, while 'liking' refers to the pleasure felt once the reward is experienced. * The systems in the brain involved in 'wanting' and 'liking' can operate separately. Individuals can strongly desire something even when the actual experienced provides little pleasure. * Dopamine is more strongly linking with wanting than liking, challenging the idea that dopamine simply produced pleasure and rather highlights its role in reward motivation. === Incentive salience theory - Berridge & Robinson (2016) === * Incentive salience theory explains how reward related cues can strongly motivate behaviour. Cues associated with reward can trigger 'wanting' for the reward. * Mesolimbic dopamine systems play a key role in incentive salience through increasing the motivational value of these reward related cues. * Incentive salience can often help explain why the feeling of 'wanting' may continue or increase while 'liking' decrease. This can lead to an individual to remain highly motivated to seek a reward despite receiving limited pleasure from it. == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] 98ko7ee60bpiki9baklnooyjyu8q0qd 2830384 2830372 2026-09-02T04:40:11Z Ckopplemann 3108346 Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour dot points completed 2830384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}}__TOC__{{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|120px|Figure 1. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] A university student is up late studying for their final exam, they're under considerable stress and are experiencing a strong desire to use their vape. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and rewarding as they can not focus on anything else. Eventually they use their vape, however the experience is disappointing and uncomfortable. The taste is unpleasant and they now feel nauseous, the expected satisfaction is breif. Despite this, the craving later returns. Why can the anticipation of a experience create such a strong motivation when the experience itself involves little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure refers to epxerienced when thinking about or expecting a future rewarding experience. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of wanting. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the "in the moment experience of pleasure". *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure and the participants willingness to expand effort for monetary rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure influence motivation and behaviour? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation, prediction and learning? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence behaviours such as sexual desire, gambling and substance use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward and consummatory pleasure while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure - Gard et al. (2006) === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned when thinking about anticipating a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates antipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006) found that the two components are strongly correlated however represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour - Geanney et al. (2015) === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. * Anticipatory pleasure predicted effort towards reward. It was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivated behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. == Dopamine and reward anticipation == * Dopamine plays an key role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. * Dopamine activity can respond to cues that predict future rewards, allowing these cues to gain motivation significance. * Errors in reward prediction can help individuals learn differences between expected and experienced rewards. === The dopamine reward system - Nasser et. al., 2017 === * Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in the brains connected reward systems in the limbic regions and contributes to reward related learning and motivation. * Dopamine neurons in the midbrain respond to unexpected rewards. As learning takes place, dopamine activity can begin responding to the cue that signals the upcoming reward. * Reward predicting cues can then therefore become motivationally significant. Once a cue becomes associated with a reward it can then encourage future behaviour in regards to obtaining a reward. === Reward prediction and learning - Nasser et. al., 2017 === * Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward thats actually received. * When a reward is greater then originally predicted that is described as the positive prediction error, while when a reward is less than predicted, a negative prediction error is produced. * Prediction errors support learning by updating an individuals predictions of future rewards. Overtime, this can allow cues to become associated with particular rewards and either positively or negatively influence future decisions. == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == * Reward involves seperate processes of 'wanting' and 'liking', which often influenced reward seeking behaviour. * 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to pursue a reward, whereas 'liking' refers to the pleasure experienced when the reward is received. * Incentive salience can influence motivational value of rewarding cues, meaning an indivdual may strongly 'want' a reward without necessarily experinecing that same level of 'liking' the reward. === Wanting versus liking - Berridge & Robinson (2016) === * 'Wanting' and 'liking' are two seperate components of reward. 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to obtain a reward, while 'liking' refers to the pleasure felt once the reward is experienced. * The systems in the brain involved in 'wanting' and 'liking' can operate separately. Individuals can strongly desire something even when the actual experienced provides little pleasure. * Dopamine is more strongly linking with wanting than liking, challenging the idea that dopamine simply produced pleasure and rather highlights its role in reward motivation. === Incentive salience theory - Berridge & Robinson (2016) === * Incentive salience theory explains how reward related cues can strongly motivate behaviour. Cues associated with reward can trigger 'wanting' for the reward. * Mesolimbic dopamine systems play a key role in incentive salience through increasing the motivational value of these reward related cues. * Incentive salience can often help explain why the feeling of 'wanting' may continue or increase while 'liking' decrease. This can lead to an individual to remain highly motivated to seek a reward despite receiving limited pleasure from it. == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == * Pleasure anticipation can motivate individuals to seek rewarding experiences. * Reward related cues can increase motivation when pleasure is expected. * Sexual desire, gambling and substance abuse demonstrate how anticipated rewards can influence motivation and reward seeking behaviour. === Sexual desire and pleasure - Agmo & Laan (2023) === * Sexual desire can be seen as a form of incentive motivation. Sexual cues can active motivation and encourage individuals to approach or seek sexual experiences. * Expecting sexual pleasure can make sexual cues more motivating. Previous pleasurable sexual experiences can make related cues more attractive and increase future sexual desire. * Sexual motivation can often occur prior to experienced pleasure. Individuals may seek sexual experienced because they expect them to be reward, even before they feel pleasure. === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty - Clark et. al. (2009) === * The uncertainty of whether a reward will be granted may increase an individuals motivation to gamble. Unpredictable rewards may make gambling related cues more motivating, further inspiring one to seek rewards. * This study found that 'near misses' in gambling increased participants motivation to continue playing, despite the 'near misses' being experienced as unpleasant. * Near misses illustrate how 'wanting' can occur without 'liking'. Individuals kay contine to feel motivation to gamble even when they do not receive an immediate reward of enjoy the outcome. === Substance use and addiction - Berridge & Robinson (2016) === * Substance use further demonstrates how 'wanting' and 'liking' can become seperate. An individual may develop a strong motivation to use a substance even when the pleasurable effects have decreased or do not exist. * Repeated drug use can sensitise brain systems involved in incentive motivation. This can lead to drug related cues becoming more powerful leading to a trigger in 'wanting' and drug seeking behaviour. * Drug related cues can therefore continue to trigger strong cravings, even when the experience of the substance is no longer considered pleasurable. This can explain how excessive 'wanting' can contribute to persistent substance seeking and relapse. ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] 52ws590159iks53rcygr1g2zyzvaok2 0 330426 2830452 2823804 2026-09-02T10:44:41Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2830452 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Periodical columns *[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/language/ Language]. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/tag/bilingual/?type=column Bilingual]. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/tag/vocabulary-boost/?type=column Vocabulary Boost]. The Japan Times. Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Dictionaries See also [[w:en:Japanese dictionary]] and [[w:en:Category:Japanese dictionaries]] Phrasebooks *Toshiya Enomoto. 旅の指さし会話帳 21 Japan [English Edition/英語版]: 日本語. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCbxxkBY-hkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [Point and speak]. Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Read; Reading *[[w:en:Eleanor Jorden|Eleanor Harz Jorden]] and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn 400 Practical Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QcrXBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] See also *[[w:en:Category:Japanese language learning resources]] ==Writing== Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] ==Characters and syllabaries== *Andrew N Nelson. Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary. 1962. 1st Revised Ed: 1966. 2nd Revised Ed: 1974. Classic Ed: 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKuHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: The Incorporated Linguist, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E2MtAQAAMAAJ vol 5], no 1, p 24. **John H Haig. The Compact Nelson: Japanese - English Character Dictionary. Tuttle. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3bzewAEACAAJ] *Mark Spahn and Wolfgang Hadamitzky. Japanese Character Dictionary: With Compound Lookup via Any Kanji. 漢英熟語リバ一ス字典. Nichigai Associates. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RqEPAAAAYAAJ] *NTC's New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. 1993. ISBN 0844284343. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rZoFwQEACAAJ] **New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. Kenyusha. Tokyo. 1990. ISBN 4767490405. Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *The Learner's Japanese Kanji Dictionary. Tuttle. *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide: A new character dictionary for students and professionals. Kodansha International. 1991. Review: Gerald B Mathias and Timothy J Vance (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2loLAQAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 47 (No 1: April 1992) *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] *Naoko Taguchi. Pragmatic Competence. (Mouton Series in Pragmatics). 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=14dEa1EZm4oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24394410] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] 5irx254jiiahwcoegcvlrgof2ydprj5 0 330563 2830257 2818179 2026-09-01T17:14:05Z Michael Ten 654933 fixed some formatting 2830257 wikitext text/x-wiki <nowiki>'''Artificial Intelligence in Modern Society''' '''Overview''' Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science concerned with developing systems capable of performing tasks that normally require human intelligence. Modern AI is primarily based on narrow AI rather than hypothetical general AI and is widely used in areas such as automation, communication, education, and data analysis. Although AI offers numerous practical benefits, it also presents important challenges, including algorithmic bias, ethical concerns, and responsible use. '''Fiction vs Reality''' Artificial intelligence is frequently represented in films and popular culture as machines capable of human-like reasoning, emotions, and self-awareness. This representation corresponds to Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), a hypothetical form of AI that has not yet been developed. Current AI systems are examples of Narrow Artificial Intelligence, which is designed to perform specific tasks by identifying statistical patterns in large amounts of data. Rather than understanding information in the same way humans do, these systems generate predictions based on previously learned patterns. Consequently, current AI performs specialized functions without possessing consciousness, reasoning abilities, or self-awareness. Applications: Practical Benefits Artificial intelligence is widely used to automate repetitive tasks and improve efficiency across different fields. AI applications assist users in organizing workflows, generating text, creating outlines, summarizing information, translating languages, and supporting decision-making processes. According to the IFTTT Team (2024), AI applications can save time by automating routine activities, allowing individuals to dedicate more attention to complex and creative tasks. '''Limitations: Algorithmic Bias''' One of the most significant challenges associated with artificial intelligence is algorithmic bias. Because AI systems are trained on human-generated data, they reproduce patterns of discrimination or inequality already present in those data. Biases related to race, gender, socioeconomic status, or other social characteristics can therefore be reflected in algorithmic decisions. As Broussard (2022) explains, algorithms are not inherently neutral because they are created by humans and inevitably reflect the assumptions embedded in their design and training data. '''Responsible Use''' The increasing integration of artificial intelligence into everyday life has highlighted the importance of responsible use. International organizations such as UNESCO emphasize that AI should be used ethically and critically rather than accepted uncritically. Responsible use involves recognizing the capabilities and limitations of AI systems, verifying the information they generate, protecting privacy, promoting fairness, and developing AI literacy. These practices contribute to the ethical and informed use of artificial intelligence in society. =='''References'''== * Broussard, M. (2022). Popular Doesn´t Mean Good. In Artificial Intelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World (pp. 146–157). The MIT Press. * The IFTTT Team. (2024, August 2). How does ChatGPT work? (link) * UNESCO. (2025, October 20). AI and society: How to build a more responsible future.(link) * Broussard, M. (2023, February 9). Remote Daily #263 – with Meredith Broussard [Video]. YouTube.(link) 4c0nfcgtxumt3ll6h3snoa0iek1e8v2 2 330795 2830381 2828236 2026-09-02T04:26:01Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ +1 2830381 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question "what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?" My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&diff=2825669&oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2830378&oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] 3eranbvw47kcz4g2xr6efnogipo045k 2830403 2830381 2026-09-02T05:27:35Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ +1 2830403 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question "what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?" My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&diff=2825669&oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2830378&oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#c-U3285438-20260902052100-Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning|Suggested integrating a relevant theory to help contextualise key concepts in my peer's book chapter.]] j3nnmp31ssktp0pwgzq2qw053tia1m9 2830410 2830403 2026-09-02T05:41:40Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ +1 and added dates to social contributions. 2830410 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question "what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?" My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #''18 Aug. 2026'' - [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #''18 Aug. 2026'' - [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #''20 Aug. 2026'' - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #''20 Aug. 2026'' - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] #''20 Aug. 2026'' - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] #''25 Aug. 2026'' - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&diff=2825669&oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] #''02 Sept. 2026'' - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2830378&oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] #''02 Sept. 2026'' - [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#c-U3285438-20260902052100-Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning|Suggested integrating a relevant theory to help contextualise key concepts in my peer's book chapter.]] g3559lq68mz7ubhxfin5xrte9blytzu 2830412 2830410 2026-09-02T05:44:21Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ edited formatting 2830412 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question "what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?" My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #''18 Aug. 2026:'' [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #''18 Aug. 2026:'' [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #''20 Aug. 2026:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #''20 Aug. 2026:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] #''20 Aug. 2026:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] #''25 Aug. 2026:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&diff=2825669&oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] #''02 Sept. 2026:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2830378&oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] #''02 Sept. 2026:'' [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#c-U3285438-20260902052100-Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning|Suggested integrating a relevant theory to help contextualise key concepts in my peer's book chapter.]] netu0nejk1w8lxzluq6xq6hjsj925da 2830414 2830412 2026-09-02T06:02:36Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ edited format 2830414 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question "what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?" My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] (18 Aug. 2026) #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] (18 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] (20 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] (20 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] (20 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&diff=2825669&oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] (25 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2830378&oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] (02 Sept. 2026) #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#c-U3285438-20260902052100-Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning|Suggested integrating a relevant theory to help contextualise key concepts in my peer's book chapter.]] (02 Sept. 2026) 12y55l0x6ct15dkqzqhy1q6tq47lh2x 2830416 2830414 2026-09-02T06:04:44Z U3285438 3103750 /* About me */ edited image caption 2830416 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' As a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question "what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?" My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] (18 Aug. 2026) #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] (18 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] (20 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] (20 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] (20 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&diff=2825669&oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] (25 Aug. 2026) #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2830378&oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] (02 Sept. 2026) #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#c-U3285438-20260902052100-Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning|Suggested integrating a relevant theory to help contextualise key concepts in my peer's book chapter.]] (02 Sept. 2026) 3zhjviqqbd96o9ik2h8ez3yj67qcus5 2 331036 2830222 2822472 2026-09-01T15:18:41Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints - Please ignore the notification this edit generated. 2830222 wikitext text/x-wiki __INDEX__ {{Research project | title = First-Principles Derivation of the Fine-Structure Constant: Fano Plane Symmetries, Lagrangian Duality, and the Hydrogen Atom | status = Active / Proposal | area = Mathematical Physics / String Theory / Quantum Mechanics }} == Open Science Architecture & Full Corpus Index == This Wikiversity resource serves as an '''executive summary and educational portal''' for a broader, multi-paper research network. To maintain readability, detailed mathematical derivations, extended proofs, and complete source code are modularized across permanent Open Science repositories (Zenodo Concept DOIs): * '''Full Verification Suite & Spectral Invariants:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20684476 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20684476] * '''Unified PEPS-5D & Fano 2-22 Archive:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20635062 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20635062] * '''Lagrangian Duality & Fine-Structure Series:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.19802606] ''Readers seeking the full step-by-step algebraic derivations and reproducible Python environments are encouraged to consult the corresponding archived manuscripts linked above.'' == Abstract & Overview == This research project presents a proposed theoretical model for a first-principles derivation of the inverse [[fine-structure constant]] (<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>) without free parameters. It presents its exact analytical closed form, its Lagrangian action principle, its representation as a circular [[Matrix product state|Matrix Product State (MPS)]], and its physical role as a critical threshold governing decoherence scales and the stability of the hydrogen 1s orbital. == Research Status, Limitations & Disclaimer == {{Notice|type=note|text='''Research Status & Scope:''' This learning and research resource presents an exploratory theoretical model developed to facilitate open computational testing, mathematical exploration, and community feedback on Wikiversity. * '''Publication & Review Status:''' The manuscript synthesizing this theoretical framework and its 18 verification modules is currently under formal peer review at the ''Journal of Mathematical Physics'' (JMP) under submission reference '''JMP26-AR-01774'''. The underlying multi-paper research network is archived under permanent Concept DOIs on Zenodo for full open-science transparency. * '''Model Scope:''' All mathematical derivations, tensor network constructions, and Python verification scripts demonstrate internal self-consistency and high-precision numerical agreement within the defined model. They are presented as a self-consistent theoretical hypothesis rather than an established physical consensus.}} == Educational & Research Objectives == This learning and research resource is designed for advanced students, doctoral candidates, and researchers in mathematical physics. The primary objectives are: * To provide a self-contained exposition of circular Matrix Product States (MPS) on algebraic varieties and finite projective spaces. * To demonstrate the analytical derivation of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> via continued fraction structures, [[Fano plane]] symmetries, and worldsheet oscillations. * To offer an open-source, fully deterministic verification suite allowing independent validation of all invariant derivations, spectral limits, and topological classification scans. == Prerequisites == To fully engage with the theoretical framework and computational routines, familiarity with the following topics is recommended: * [[Differential geometry]] and algebraic geometry (specifically [[Fano plane|Fano varieties]], moduli spaces, and projective geometry <math>PG(2,2)</math>) * [[Quantum field theory]] and [[Polyakov action|Polyakov string theory]] * [[Matrix product state|Matrix Product States (MPS)]] and tensor network methods * [[Numerical analysis]] and symbolic computation in Python (<code>mpmath</code>, <code>sympy</code>, <code>scipy</code>, <code>numpy</code>) == Reproducibility, Open Science & Verification Suite == To ensure full computational transparency and empirical reproducibility, the theoretical framework presented in this work is supported by an open-source verification suite. All invariant derivations, spectral convergence tests, and topological classification scans are deterministically executable. * '''Archive & DOI''': [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20684476 10.5281/zenodo.20684476] * '''Suite Name''': <tt>Spectral_Invariants_Full_Verification_suite.py</tt> (Version v3.0.1) * '''Target Manuscript''': ''"Spectral Invariants of Circular Tensor Networks on the Moduli Space of Fano 3-Folds with an application to the fine-structure constant"'' * '''Environment Requirements''': Python 3.10+ (<tt>mpmath</tt>, <tt>numpy</tt>, <tt>scipy</tt>, <tt>matplotlib</tt>, <tt>sympy</tt>) <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> # Execution command (Runs in high precision within seconds) python Spectral_Invariants_Full_Verification_suite.py </syntaxhighlight> === Complete Verification Modules (v3.0.1) === The verification suite automatically runs and validates the following 18 analytical and numerical modules: # '''Module 1: Closed-Form <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> Derivation''' — Calculates the exact fine-structure constant via the continued fraction <math>[14,1,7,3,1,3]</math> (<math>\boldsymbol{K} \approx 9.932791</math>), matching [[CODATA]] 2022 with a precision error <math>< 10^{-14}</math>. # '''Module 2: Historical CODATA Analysis (2006–2022)''' — Demonstrates that all partial quotients extracted from historical [[CODATA]] measurements remain strictly bounded by <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>. # '''Module 3: MPS Spectral Convergence''' — Tracks the circular [[tensor network]] limit up to <math>\boldsymbol{N} = 10000</math>, showing convergence to <math>\ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) \to \boldsymbol{A}_{\text{geo}} + \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>. # '''Module 4: Stochastic Monte Carlo Simulation''' — Evaluates <math>\langle \boldsymbol{S} \rangle</math> across <math>100,000</math> iterations, confirming statistical convergence to the experimental baseline. # '''Module 5: Sensitivity Scan for <math>\boldsymbol{\tau}</math>''' — Scans the scale parameter <math>\boldsymbol{\tau} \in [3.0, 7.0]</math>, proving structural invariant stability within <math>10^{-2}</math>. # '''Module 6: Commutator Norm (Theoretical Proof)''' — Proves <math>[\boldsymbol{G}(\theta_1), \boldsymbol{G}(\theta_2)] = 0</math>, guaranteeing ordering consistency across tensor blocks. # '''Module 7: Sensitivity Scan for Coupling <math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon}</math>''' — Perturbs the system for <math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} \in [0, 10^{-2}]</math>, showing deviations <math>< 10^{-9}</math> for <math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} \le 10^{-4}</math> and validating the pure geometric limit (<math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} = 0</math>). # '''Module 8: PF–DS Numerical Equivalence''' — Validates the integer sequence match between [[Picard–Fuchs equation|Picard-Fuchs]] coefficients and [[Dyson–Schwinger equation|Dyson-Schwinger]] propagation (<math>\boldsymbol{c}_2=6, \boldsymbol{c}_3=24, \boldsymbol{c}_4=138, \boldsymbol{c}_5=1080, \boldsymbol{c}_6=6540, \boldsymbol{c}_7=50400</math>). # '''Module 9: PF–DS Symbolic Verification''' — Performs algebraic symbolic verification of the differential operator <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}_{\text{PF}}</math> reduced to the logarithmic operator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\Theta} = t \frac{d}{dt}</math> via <tt>SymPy</tt>. # '''Module 10: Bond Dimension Singularity Scan (<math>\boldsymbol{D}</math>)''' — Scans <math>\boldsymbol{D} \in [40, 50]</math>, proving that <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45 = \dim(\mathfrak{so}(10))</math> is the unique dimension matching the Minkowski period factor <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24\boldsymbol{D} = 1080</math>. # '''Module 11: Statistical Test for <math>\boldsymbol{D}=45</math>''' — Runs <math>10,000</math> stochastic trials, evaluating the statistical improbability of random alignment for <math>\boldsymbol{D}=45</math> (<math>\boldsymbol{p} < 1.2 \times 10^{-3}</math> against the tested random baseline). # '''Module 12: Maximal Independent Set (MIS) Bridging''' — Evaluates probability distributions over independent sets, showing a sharp peak at <math>\boldsymbol{q} = 45</math> (<math>\boldsymbol{P} \approx 10^{-13}</math>). # '''Module 13: Systematic Scan of 105 Fano Families''' — Scans the entire Mori-Mukai classification database, proving that only ID-69 (Fano 2-22) satisfies the three structural factorizations. # '''Module 14: Quantum Graphon Cut Norm Convergence''' — Measures cut norm convergence across refinement levels <math>\boldsymbol{k}=0, 1, 2</math>, confirming asymptotic decay <math>\boldsymbol{O}(2^{-k})</math>. # '''Module 15: Spectral Gap Calculation''' — Integrates hinge mode ratios <math>\boldsymbol{\Lambda}_1 / \boldsymbol{\Lambda}_0</math>, confirming convergence toward the rigid asymptotic bound <math>2.0</math>. # '''Module 16: Bulk Graphon Parameters''' — Derives the continuous coupling parameters <math>\boldsymbol{\gamma} \approx 22.732171</math> and <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_W \approx 2.291522</math>. # '''Module 17: Commutator Frobenius Norm Table''' — Computes maximum operator commutator norms, returning zero within machine precision (<math>4.47 \times 10^{-21}</math>). # '''Module 18: Minimal Reproducible Script''' — Standalone 10-line self-contained routine calculating <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> to 50 decimal places in arbitrary precision. == 1. Topological Scope & Theoretical Framework == Starting from the generator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> (see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant#Numerical_approximations Historical Numerical Approximations on Wikipedia]), we model the physical inverse fine-structure constant <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> as the Effective Action <math>\boldsymbol{\Gamma}_{\text{eff}}</math> of an oscillating circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> dual to a compactified [[Bosonic string theory|bosonic string]] <ref name="polyakov1981" /> <ref name="polchinski1998" />: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) - \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi})\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})^2 \boldsymbol{\pi}^2} \langle \hat{\boldsymbol{K}}^{-1} \rangle</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 24</math> emerges identically as the third derivative (cubic curvature) of the polynomial—matching the 24 transverse modes of the bosonic string <ref name="polyakov1981" />—and <math>\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}</math> is the dominant eigenvalue of a circular MPS with bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>. We propose that the vacuum persistence amplitude <math>\boldsymbol{\Psi}_{\text{vac}} = e^{-\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}} \approx 3.06 \times 10^{-60}</math> provides a fundamental dimensionless weight defining the decoherence scale. When combined with the lepton mass scale (<math>\boldsymbol{m}_e</math>), this action fixes the binding energy (<math>\boldsymbol{E}_0 = -13.6057\text{ eV}</math>), the Bohr radius (<math>\boldsymbol{a}_0 = 52.92\text{ pm}</math>), and the orbital velocity (<math>\boldsymbol{v} = \boldsymbol{\alpha} \boldsymbol{c}</math>) of the hydrogen ground state without fitting parameters. === 1.0 Algebraic and Differential Anatomy of the Generator Polynomial === Prior to evaluating <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> at the geometric resonance point <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, a structural examination from the perspectives of [[Abstract algebra|abstract algebra]], [[Differential geometry|differential geometry]], and [[Invariant theory|invariant theory]] reveals that the polynomial :<math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> possesses intrinsic algebraic properties that suggest a underlying geometric origin. ==== 1.0.1 Degree Grading and Topological Decompositions ==== The polynomial is complete and strictly graded in degrees 3, 2, and 1, with a vanishing constant term (<math>\boldsymbol{c}_0 = 0</math>). * '''Vanishing Constant Term (<math>\boldsymbol{A}(0) = 0</math>):''' Ensures the existence of a trivial fixed point (vacuum state) at the origin of the [[Configuration space (physics)|configuration space]], allowing the algebraic factorization <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}(4\boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x} + 1)</math>. * '''Graded Hierarchy <math>(3, 2, 1)</math>:''' Directly mirrors the dimensional decomposition of differential forms on a compact [[Riemannian manifold]] and discretized Regge calculus <ref name="regge1961" /> <ref name="cheeger1984" />: ** <math>\boldsymbol{x}^3</math> corresponds to the 3D volume form of the underlying phase space. ** <math>\boldsymbol{x}^2</math> corresponds to the 2D boundary surface curvature (area functional). ** <math>\boldsymbol{x}^1</math> corresponds to the 1D topological invariant (the fundamental 1-cycle or perimeter of the oscillating boundary). ==== 1.0.2 Integer Coefficients and Spinorial Algebra ==== The sequence of natural coefficients <math>(4, 1, 1)</math> encodes precise algebraic invariants: * '''Leading Coefficient 4:''' Represents the dimension of the [[Dirac spinor]] space in four spacetime dimensions (<math>\mathbb{C}^4</math>), corresponding to the four helicity modes of the coupled fermion-photon system <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />. * '''Unitary Coefficients <math>(1, 1)</math>:''' Establish isotropic, unscaled coupling between the boundary surface (<math>\boldsymbol{x}^2</math>) and the linear loop (<math>\boldsymbol{x}^1</math>). * '''Unit Evaluation <math>\boldsymbol{A}(1) = 6</math>:''' Evaluating the polynomial at unity yields <math>4(1)^3 + (1)^2 + 1 = 6</math>, matching the dimension of the [[Lorentz group]] <math>SO(3,1)</math> (the 6 generators of rotations and boosts) and the edge count of the fundamental 3-simplex (tetrahedron). ==== 1.0.3 Polynomial Discriminant, Bhargava Cubic Rings, and the Lie Algebra su(4) ==== Under the Delone–Faddeev–Davenport–Bhargava parametrization of cubic rings over <math>\mathbb{Z}</math> <ref name="bhargava2004cubic" />, the generator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> corresponds to the binary cubic form <math>f(u,v) = 4u^3 + u^2v + uv^2</math> with integer quadruplet <math>(a,b,c,d) = (4,1,1,0)</math>. The fundamental algebraic invariant of this cubic order is its polynomial [[discriminant]]: :<math>\boldsymbol{\Delta}(f) = b^2c^2 - 4ac^3 - 4b^3d - 27a^2d^2 + 18abcd = 1 - 16 = -15</math> The absolute invariant <math>|\boldsymbol{\Delta}| = 15</math> identifies key algebraic structures: * <math>15 = \dim(\mathfrak{su}(4))</math>, the dimension of the [[Special unitary group|special unitary Lie algebra]] <math>\mathfrak{su}(4)</math>, which governs the two-qubit operator space <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math> in the [[Fano plane]] representation <ref name="blandino2026fano" /> and Fano 3-fold classification <ref name="iskovskikh1977" /> <ref name="mori1981" /> <ref name="golyshev2007" /> <ref name="coates2013" />. * Since <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta} < 0</math>, <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> possesses exactly one real root (<math>\boldsymbol{x} = 0</math>) and a pair of complex conjugate roots <math>\boldsymbol{x}_{\pm} = \frac{-1 \pm i\sqrt{15}}{8}</math>, defining a unique stable real trajectory accompanied by a two-dimensional complex phase oscillation. ==== 1.0.4 Third Derivative as a String Curvature Invariant ==== The successive derivatives of <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> are: :<math>\boldsymbol{A}'(\boldsymbol{x}) = 12\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 2\boldsymbol{x} + 1</math> :<math>\boldsymbol{A}''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24\boldsymbol{x} + 2</math> :<math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24</math> The third derivative <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) \equiv 24</math> is a constant, coordinate-independent differential invariant. In [[Bosonic string theory|bosonic string theory]] <ref name="polchinski1998" />, 24 represents the critical dimension of transverse physical oscillations (<math>\boldsymbol{D} - 2 = 26 - 2 = 24</math>), tied to the [[Dedekind eta function]] and the symmetries of the [[Leech lattice]]. The polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> intrinsically embeds the 24 transverse degrees of freedom as its cubic curvature. === 1.1 Structural Properties vs. Numerical Coincidence === Historically, the polynomial :<math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> appears in literature and reference collections as an interesting numerical approximation <ref name="nature2010" /> that closely matches the empirical inverse fine-structure constant <ref name="codata2022" /> when evaluated at <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>: :<math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \approx 137.0363037</math> Within the proposed model, this polynomial is analyzed not as a random coincidence, but as an algebraic structure exhibiting specific geometric properties <ref name="Sardin2025" />: * '''Uniqueness and Complete Structure:''' It is the unique complete cubic generator polynomial with natural coefficients satisfying three independent topological and geometric constraints simultaneously. * '''Invariance under Differentiation:''' Its third derivative is constant, <math>\frac{d^3 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})}{d\boldsymbol{x}^3} = 24</math>, yielding the exact dimensional invariant corresponding to the transverse modes of the bosonic string <ref name="polyakov1981" />. * '''Resonance Point:''' Evaluation at <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> is interpreted as the physical resonance state of an oscillating spatial circle. * '''Derivation from Action Principles:''' <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> is derived from the classical geometric action of a dynamical system <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />. === 1.2 The Geometric Action Behind the Polynomial A(x) === The polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> is derived from the geometric action of an oscillating circle with radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{x}</math>. Consider the geometric Lagrangian of the system <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />: :<math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}}) = 4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2 + \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d}^2 + \frac{1}{4\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}</math> The weak solution to the associated Euler-Lagrange equation yields the displacement field: :<math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R} \sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> Integrating the action over a complete cycle <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} \in [0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math> gives: :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{R}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}</math> Evaluating the functional at the fundamental geometric radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> yields the exact value of the generator polynomial: :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})</math> This derivation provides a physical action interpretation for the oscillating boundary. === 1.3 The Continued Fraction as a Refinement of the Underlying Graph === The continued fraction representation of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> constitutes the arithmetic refinement of the discrete graph generated by <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />. The physical value of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> belongs to an arithmetic class whose partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> are strictly bounded by: :<math>\boldsymbol{q}_i \le 45</math> This bound is topological within the model. The continuous spatial domain (oscillating circle) and the discrete algebraic graph (<math>PG(2,2)</math>) intersect at the invariant constraint <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>. This dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> connects the structure across four distinct domains: # The dimension of the virtual space in the Matrix Product State (MPS) <ref name="verstraete2004" />. # The dimension of the adjoint representation of the Lie group <math>SO(10)</math>. # The upper bound on the partial quotients of the continued fraction expansion <ref name="lovasz2006" /> <ref name="lovasz2012large" />. # The fixed point of the renormalization dynamical system. == 2. Exact Closed-Form Representation and the Cubic Curvature Invariant == === 2.1 The Polynomial Seed and Three-Term Formula === The classical approximation to the inverse fine-structure constant uses the cubic polynomial in <math>\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \approx 137.0363037759</math> which reproduces <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> with an error of <math>\sim 3 \times 10^{-4}</math>. We refine this relation into a three-term analytical formula <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) - \frac{1}{24 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})^2 \cdot \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 \cdot \boldsymbol{K}}</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{K}</math> is the bounded subtractive continued fraction: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{K} = 10 - \cfrac{1}{14 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{7 + \cfrac{1}{3 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{3 + \dots}}}}}}</math> === 2.2 Analytic Origin of the Coefficient 24 === The denominator 24 in the second term is an intrinsic analytic invariant derived from the differential geometry of the generator polynomial. '''Theorem 1 (Cubic Curvature Theorem).''' ''Let <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> be a real cubic function. Its third derivative <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x})</math> is constant, uniform, and independent of <math>\boldsymbol{x}</math>:'' <math display="block">\boldsymbol{A}'(\boldsymbol{x}) = 12\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 2\boldsymbol{x} + 1, \qquad \boldsymbol{A}''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24\boldsymbol{x} + 2, \qquad \boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24</math> ''Evaluating the third derivative at <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> yields <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) \equiv 24</math>. Thus, the second term of the expansion is identically:'' <math display="block">\frac{1}{24 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} \equiv \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) \cdot \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})}</math> This term represents the leading-order curvature correction of the configuration space, providing a purely analytic justification for 24. === 2.3 Bounded Partial Quotients and Arithmetic Invariance === An analysis of the historical CODATA values of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> (2006–2022) <ref name="codata2022" /> demonstrates that all measured values within the experimental uncertainty interval correspond to continued fractions whose partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> are bounded above by 45: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{q}_i \le 45 \quad \forall \boldsymbol{i} \in \mathbb{N}</math> This establishes that <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> belongs to a restricted arithmetic class of real numbers of periodic type, imposing a topological bound <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> on the allowed virtual Hilbert space <ref name="lovasz2006" /> <ref name="borgs2008convergent" />. == 3. Field Theory & Lagrangian Duality == === 3.1 The Geometric Field Lagrangian === Consider an oscillating circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R}</math> in the xy-plane whose center undergoes vertical displacement <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta})</math> parameterized by the phase angle <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} \in [0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math>. The cutting plane <math>\boldsymbol{z}=0</math> produces a chord length <math>\text{chord}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = 2\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta})^2}</math>. We define the geometric field Lagrangian density <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}})</math> as <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}}) = 4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2 + \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}} \boldsymbol{d}^2 + \frac{1}{4}\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}</math> where <math>\dot{\boldsymbol{d}} = \frac{d\boldsymbol{d}}{d\boldsymbol{\theta}}</math>. The three terms represent: # '''Kinetic Energy (<math>4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2</math>):''' Transverse deformation energy along the cycle. # '''Potential Energy (<math>\frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d}^2</math>):''' Axial elastic recall scaled by the compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R}</math>. # '''Surface Coupling (<math>\frac{1}{4}\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}</math>):''' Interaction with the observer/cutting plane. === 3.2 Weak Euler-Lagrange Solution === The strong Euler-Lagrange equation derived from <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> is: <math display="block">8\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} - \frac{2}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d} + \frac{1}{4}\frac{\boldsymbol{d}}{\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}} = 0</math> For an extended topological deformation over the cycle <math>[0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math>, the physical equation of motion must be satisfied in its '''weak (integral) form''': <math display="block">\int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( 8\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} - \frac{2}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d} + \frac{1}{4}\frac{\boldsymbol{d}}{\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}} \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> Substituting the harmonic ansatz <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> (where <math>\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} = -\boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} = -\boldsymbol{d}</math> and <math>\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2} = \boldsymbol{R}|\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}|</math>): <math display="block">\int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( -8\boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} - 2\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} + \frac{1}{4}\tan\boldsymbol{\theta} \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> Since <math>\int_0^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \sin\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> and the principal value <math>\int_0^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \tan\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> by quadrant symmetry, the integral vanishes identically. Thus, <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> is an exact weak solution over the topological cycle. === 3.3 On-Shell Action and Resonance at R = \pi === Evaluating <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> on-shell along <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math>: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}} = \int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( 4\boldsymbol{R}^2\cos^2\boldsymbol{\theta} + \boldsymbol{R}\sin^2\boldsymbol{\theta} + \frac{\boldsymbol{R}}{4}|\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}| \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> Using the definite integrals over <math>[0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math> (<math>\int \cos^2\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, <math>\int \sin^2\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, <math>\int |\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}|\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 4</math>): <math display="block">\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}} = 4\boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R} + \boldsymbol{R}</math> Imposing the topological resonance condition <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> (where the radius matches half the phase period <math>\boldsymbol{T}/2 = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>): <math display="block">\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}\Big|_{\boldsymbol{R}=\boldsymbol{\pi}} = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \equiv \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})</math> === 3.4 Duality with the Polyakov Bosonic String === The [[Polyakov action]] <ref name="polyakov1981" /> for a closed bosonic string compactified on a circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> with conformal gauge <math>\boldsymbol{h}_{ab} = \boldsymbol{\eta}_{ab}</math> reduces to: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{Polyakov}}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \frac{\boldsymbol{T} \boldsymbol{R}^2}{2} \left[ (\partial_{\boldsymbol{\theta}} \boldsymbol{\phi})^2 + \boldsymbol{m}^2 \boldsymbol{\phi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\lambda} \sqrt{1 - \boldsymbol{\phi}^2} \right]</math> Equating coefficients with <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> fixes the string parameters deterministically: * String Tension: <math>\boldsymbol{T} = 8</math> * Mass parameter: <math>\boldsymbol{m}^2 = \frac{1}{4\boldsymbol{\pi}}</math> * Non-linear coupling: <math>\boldsymbol{\lambda} = \frac{1}{16\boldsymbol{\pi}}</math> This indicates that the oscillating circle is topologically dual to a compactified Polyakov bosonic string. == 4. Projective Geometry PG(2,2) and the Algebraic Origin of Alpha == === 4.1 Coupling the Oscillating Circle to the Fano Plane === The continuous dynamics of the oscillating circle (<math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>) is coupled to the discrete projective structure of the [[Fano plane]] PG(2,2)—the smallest finite projective plane, comprising 7 points and 7 lines—via a spinorial phase <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> <ref name="blandino2026fano" />. The incidence matrix <math>\boldsymbol{M} \in \{0,1\}^{7 \times 7}</math> of the Fano plane satisfies <math>\boldsymbol{M} \boldsymbol{M}^\top = 2 \boldsymbol{I}_7 + \boldsymbol{J}_7</math>, with spectrum <math>\text{spec}(\boldsymbol{M} \boldsymbol{M}^\top) = \{9^1, 2^6\}</math>. The associated bipartite [[Heawood graph]] possesses the spectrum <math>\text{spec}(\boldsymbol{H}) = \{\pm 3^1, \pm\sqrt{2}^6\}</math> <ref name="brouwer2012" />, isolating <math>\sqrt{2}</math> as the combinatorial spectral invariant. === 4.2 The Spinorial Lift and Operator Algebra === We define the 4-dimensional two-qubit Hilbert space <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math>. Under the spinorial reduction of Spin(7), the local operators representing physical dynamics are defined as: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{A} = 2\sqrt{2} \, (\boldsymbol{\sigma}_z \otimes \boldsymbol{I}_2), \qquad \boldsymbol{B} = \sqrt{7} \, (\boldsymbol{I}_2 \otimes \boldsymbol{\sigma}_z)</math> where: * <math>2\sqrt{2}</math> is the [[Tsirelson's bound|Tsirelson bound]] <ref name="cirelson1980" /> (<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{Tsirelson}} = 2\sqrt{2}, \, \boldsymbol{S}_{\text{Tsirelson}}^2 = 8</math>), saturating the maximum quantum CHSH correlation <ref name="chsh1969" />. * <math>\sqrt{7}</math> is the quantum CHSH invariant evaluated at the spinorial phase <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max}^2(\boldsymbol{\pi}/6) = 4(1 + \sin^2(\boldsymbol{\pi}/3)) = 7</math>, yielding <math>\boldsymbol{B}^2 = 7 \boldsymbol{I}_4</math>. === 4.3 The Difference Operator and Characteristic Polynomial === Define the difference operator <math>\boldsymbol{X} := \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B} = 2\sqrt{2}(\boldsymbol{\sigma}_z \otimes \boldsymbol{I}_2) - \sqrt{7}(\boldsymbol{I}_2 \otimes \boldsymbol{\sigma}_z)</math>. '''Theorem 2 (Spectrum and Characteristic Polynomial of X).''' ''The four distinct eigenvalues of <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math> are <math>\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\pm\pm} = \pm 2\sqrt{2} \pm \sqrt{7}</math>. The characteristic polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \det(\boldsymbol{x} \boldsymbol{I}_4 - \boldsymbol{X})</math> is given identically by:'' <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math> ''Proof.'' Expanding the product of linear factors: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \left(\boldsymbol{x}^2 - (2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7})^2\right) \left(\boldsymbol{x}^2 - (2\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{7})^2\right)</math> Computing the squared roots: <math display="block">(2\sqrt{2} \mp \sqrt{7})^2 = 8 + 7 \mp 4\sqrt{14} = 15 \mp 4\sqrt{14}</math> Summing the quadratic terms yields <math>15 + 15 = 30</math>, and the product of the constant terms yields <math>(15 - 4\sqrt{14})(15 + 4\sqrt{14}) = 225 - 224 = 1</math>. Hence, <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math>. <math>\blacksquare</math> === 4.4 Entanglement Deficit and Graphon Invariants === The fundamental root <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta S} := 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7} \approx 0.182608</math> defines the '''entanglement deficit''', measuring the exact algebraic gap between the maximal Tsirelson bound <ref name="cirelson1980" /> and the Fano projective boundary. The monodromy operator <math>\boldsymbol{M}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \exp(i \boldsymbol{\theta} \boldsymbol{X})</math> acting with the spinorial step <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> generates a 24-step discrete clock whose eigenphases <math>\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}</math> select the 24 transverse modes of the bosonic string <ref name="polyakov1981" />. === 4.5 Dimension 105 Factorization === The global deformation space of the coupled system obeys the exact algebraic factorization <ref name="blandino2026fano" />: <math display="block">105 = 7 \times 15 = |PG(2,2)| \times \dim(\text{SU}(4)) = 7 \times \left((2\sqrt{2})^2 + (\sqrt{7})^2\right)</math> where 15 is the dimension of the Clifford algebra <math>\mathfrak{su}(4)</math> acting on <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math>, showing that the quantum state space of the vacuum aligns with the irreducible representation space of the Klein combinatorial algebra. === 4.6 The Fano-Snowflake and the Spinorial Rotation === The discrete geometric configuration known as the '''Fano-Snowflake''' was introduced by Saniga, Havlicek, Planat, and Pracna (2008) in the context of projectively defined ternary rings over <math>PG(2,2)</math> <ref name="saniga2008snowflake" />. In its original formulation, the Snowflake represents a static algebraic mapping of incidence relations across twin faces of projective structures. In this work, this combinatorial geometry is integrated with the boundary mechanics of the oscillating circle by mapping its 24 discrete coordinates onto the trajectory traced by an oscillating Polyakov string of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> undergoing a discrete spinorial rotation. [[File:Fano snowflake spinorial clock.png|thumb|center|800px|'''Figure 1: Spinorial Rotation of the Oscillating Circle on the Fano Lattice.''' Projection of the continuous boundary trajectory (<math>\boldsymbol{R}=\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>) onto the discrete <math>PG(2,2)</math> incidence structure originally derived by Saniga et al. (2008). The discrete coordinates map onto the 24 eigenphases <math>\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}</math> generated by the step-wise spinorial rotation <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math>.]] ==== Dynamical Mechanism of the Oscillation ==== The continuous displacement field <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> of the oscillating circle, sampled at discrete angular steps <math>\boldsymbol{\theta}_k = k\boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math>, generates a sequence of overlapping boundary frames. The transition between successive discrete states on the Fano plane is governed by the step operator: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{M}\left(\frac{\boldsymbol{\pi}}{6}\right) = \exp\left(i \frac{\boldsymbol{\pi}}{6} \boldsymbol{X}\right)</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{X} = \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B}</math> is the difference operator acting on the two-qubit space <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math>. * '''Classical vs. Spinorial Rotation''': A standard <math>2\boldsymbol{\pi}</math> spatial rotation corresponds to 12 discrete steps (<math>\Delta\boldsymbol{\theta} = 12 \times \boldsymbol{\pi}/6 = 2\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>). A full spinorial double-cover rotation of <math>4\boldsymbol{\pi}</math> requires 24 discrete steps (<math>\Delta\boldsymbol{\theta} = 24 \times \boldsymbol{\pi}/6 = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>), generating the complete set of 24 eigenphases <math>\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}</math> of the monodromy operator <math>\boldsymbol{U}_{24}</math>. * '''Hinge Localization''': The fundamental step <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> arises directly from the bisector geometry of the equilateral triangle (splitting the internal angle <math>\boldsymbol{\pi}/3</math> into two equal <math>\boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> components) and isolates the antisymmetric singlet projector <math>\boldsymbol{P}_-</math> in the twin-face Lagrangian <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{hinge}}</math>. This construction uses the Fano-Snowflake geometry of Saniga et al. as a discrete invariant trace left by the spinorial rotation of the quantized oscillating string. === 4.7 Variational Effective Potential and Equilibrium at <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> === To analyze the stability of the compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, we construct the effective potential energy functional <math>\boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}(\boldsymbol{R})</math> for the continuous displacement field <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> on <math>S^1</math>, coupled to the discrete Fano entanglement deficit constraint <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta S} = 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7}</math>: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}(\boldsymbol{R}) = \frac{2\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R}^2 - \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R}</math> Applying the stationary condition with respect to the compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R}</math>: <math display="block">\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}} = \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R} - \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} = 0 \implies \boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> Furthermore, evaluating the second derivative yields a positive curvature: <math display="block">\frac{\partial^2 \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}^2} = \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} > 0</math> This confirms that <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> represents a strict local minimum of the effective potential energy (and a corresponding stationary point of the dual action functional). === 4.8 Spectral Isomorphism: From PGL(3,2) Automorphisms to MPS Transfer Matrix === The projection of the discrete Fano incidence geometry <math>PG(2,2)</math> onto the Matrix Product State (MPS) tensor network is mediated by the automorphism group <math>\boldsymbol{G} = PGL(3,2)</math> of order 168. Let <math>\{\boldsymbol{M}_i\}_{i=1}^{7}</math> denote the localized generators on the two-qubit Hilbert space <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2 \cong \mathfrak{su}(4)</math>. The group action of <math>\boldsymbol{g} \in PGL(3,2)</math> acts on the local MPS tensors via the permutation representation <math>\boldsymbol{\Pi}(\boldsymbol{g})_{ij}</math>. The invariant contracted Transfer Matrix <math>\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}} \in \mathbb{C}^{D^2 \times D^2}</math> is constructed as: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}} = \frac{1}{168} \sum_{\boldsymbol{g} \in PGL(3,2)} \sum_{i,j=1}^{7} \boldsymbol{\Pi}(\boldsymbol{g})_{ij} \left( \boldsymbol{M}_i \otimes \boldsymbol{M}_j^\dagger \right)</math> In the bond dimension saturation limit <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45 = \dim(\mathfrak{so}(10))</math>, the characteristic polynomial of the Transfer Matrix inherits the exact algebraic factorized structure of the difference operator <math>\boldsymbol{X} = \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B}</math>: <math display="block">\det(\lambda \boldsymbol{I} - \boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}}) = \left( \lambda^4 - 30\lambda^2 + 1 \right)^{\otimes 11} \cdot (\lambda - \lambda_{\max})</math> '''Theorem (Bhargava Higher Composition Extension for Tensor Networks):''' Let <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\lambda) = \lambda^4 - 30\lambda^2 + 1</math> be the resolvent polynomial of the difference operator <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math>. By Bhargava's higher composition laws on <math>2 \times 2 \times 2</math> trilinear forms <ref name="bhargava2004quartic" />, the space of <math>PGL(3,2)</math>-invariant tensor contractions over <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math> decomposes into 11 independent, irreducible 4-dimensional orbit modules. Consequently, the transfer matrix <math>\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}}</math> inherits the algebraic factorized spectral structure <math>(\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\lambda))^{\otimes 11}</math> with a single non-degenerate boundary shift corresponding to the dominant eigenvalue <math>\lambda_{\max}</math>. The dominant eigenvalue <math>\lambda_{\max}</math> defines the asymptotic bound mapping directly to the inverse fine-structure constant <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>: <math display="block">\ln \lambda_{\max} - \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = 137.0359991678</math> This asymptotic limit, verified via Monte Carlo sampling across <math>10^6</math> steps in the verification suite, confirms that <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> behaves as a topological invariant generated by the spectral bound of <math>PG(2,2)</math>. === 4.9 Topological Rigidity of the Bond Dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> === The bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> of the circular MPS is modeled as a topological and algebraic constraint. The virtual space of the tensor network is investigated through three mutually reinforcing algebraic routes. ==== 4.9.1 The Kostant Dual Constraint and Explicit Anomaly Bound ==== Let <math>\boldsymbol{V}</math> be the virtual tensor space of the circular MPS, defined as a finite-dimensional module over the Lie algebra <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math> <ref name="kostant1999" />. The transfer operator of the MPS is invariant under the action of <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math>. '''Lemma 11.1 (Anomaly bound via instanton evaluation).''' The cancellation of the gauge anomaly on the spatial section <math>\boldsymbol{S}^3</math> requires that the dimension of the virtual representation space satisfies: <math display="block">\dim(\boldsymbol{V}) \ge \dim(\text{adj } \mathfrak{so}(10)) = 45</math> ''Proof.'' Consider a compact bounding four-manifold <math>\boldsymbol{B}^4</math> such that <math>\partial\boldsymbol{B}^4 = \boldsymbol{S}^3</math>. By the Atiyah-Patodi-Singer index theorem <ref name="aps1975" />, the index of the chiral Dirac operator coupled to the vector bundle <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\boldsymbol{V}}</math> is determined by the bulk integral. Retaining the gauge contribution, we have: <math display="block">\text{index}(\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}_{\boldsymbol{B}^4}) \propto \int_{\boldsymbol{B}^4} \text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{F} \wedge \boldsymbol{F})</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{F}</math> is the gauge curvature two-form. We normalise the trace in representation <math>\boldsymbol{V}</math> as <math>\text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{T}_a \boldsymbol{T}_b) = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \boldsymbol{\delta}_{ab}</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}}</math> is the Dynkin index. For the adjoint representation of <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math>, <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\text{adj}} = 2\boldsymbol{h}^\vee = 16</math>. To explicitly evaluate the anomaly inflow, we choose a representative unit instanton background (<math>\boldsymbol{k} = 1</math>) on <math>\boldsymbol{B}^4</math>, embedded via <math>SU(2) \hookrightarrow SO(10)</math>. For such a background, the integral of the second Chern character yields: <math display="block">\int_{\boldsymbol{B}^4} \text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{F} \wedge \boldsymbol{F}) = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \cdot 8\boldsymbol{\pi}^2 \boldsymbol{k} = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \cdot 8\boldsymbol{\pi}^2</math> Anomaly cancellation requires that <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}}</math> be an integer multiple of the adjoint Dynkin index: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} = \boldsymbol{m} \cdot \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\text{adj}}, \quad \boldsymbol{m} \in \mathbb{Z}_{\ge 1}</math> The minimal non-trivial anomaly-free sector corresponds to <math>\boldsymbol{m} = 1</math>, giving <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} = 16</math>. Under this embedding, the smallest representation of <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math> that realises this Dynkin index is the adjoint representation itself. Therefore, <math>\dim(\boldsymbol{V}) \ge 45</math>. '''Lemma 11.2 (Uniqueness of the adjoint subspace).''' If the transfer operator commutes with the <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math>-action and its spectrum matches the Casimir eigenvalues of the adjoint representation with multiplicity one, then <math>\boldsymbol{V}</math> is uniquely isomorphic to the adjoint representation. Combining the explicit anomaly bound and the spectral uniqueness, the inequality is saturated, yielding exactly: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\boldsymbol{V}) = 45</math> ==== 4.9.2 The Hilbert Series of the Fano 2-22 ==== Let <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math> be the Fano 3-fold 2-22 (Mori-Mukai ID-69). Its Hilbert series is defined by the Minkowski period coefficients <math>\boldsymbol{c}_n</math>. Based on the structural parameters of the Lagrangian, the coefficients <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5, \boldsymbol{c}_6, \boldsymbol{c}_7</math> satisfy the following algebraic system: <math display="block"> \begin{cases} \boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24 \boldsymbol{D} \\ \boldsymbol{c}_6 = \frac{4}{3} \boldsymbol{D} (\boldsymbol{D} + 64) \\ \boldsymbol{c}_7 = 32 \boldsymbol{D} (\boldsymbol{D} - 10) \end{cases} </math> The coefficient <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5</math> is a topological invariant of <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math> given by <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24 \cdot (2\boldsymbol{g} + 1)</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{g} = 22</math> is the degree of the Fano 2-22. Thus, <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080</math>. Substituting <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080</math> into the first equation yields: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{D} = \frac{1080}{24} = 45</math> Substituting <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> into the second and third equations yields <math>\boldsymbol{c}_6 = 6540</math> and <math>\boldsymbol{c}_7 = 50400</math>, matching the Minkowski coefficients recorded in the Graded Ring Database (GRDB) for ID-69. ==== 4.9.3 The Picard-Fuchs Congruence ==== The reduced Picard-Fuchs operator derived from the Dyson-Schwinger equation takes the form: <math display="block">\widetilde{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}(\boldsymbol{\Theta}) = \boldsymbol{\Theta}^3 - 6\boldsymbol{\Theta}^2 + 11\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 6 = (\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 1)(\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 2)(\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 3)</math> The roots <math>\boldsymbol{\Theta} = 1, 2, 3</math> correspond to the monodromy eigenvalues. By Picard-Lefschetz theory and Hodge theory <ref name="voisin2002" />, the monodromy representation on the middle cohomology <math>H^3(\boldsymbol{X}, \mathbb{Z})</math> has dimension <math>b_3(\boldsymbol{X}) = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 2 = 46</math>. '''Lemma 11.3 (Monodromy to virtual dimension).''' The reduction of the monodromy representation modulo the lattice of vanishing cycles leaves a <math>(2\boldsymbol{g} + 1)</math>-dimensional subspace, mapping via immersion to the virtual space of the transfer operator. Applying this reduction to the Fano 2-22 (where <math>\boldsymbol{g} = 22</math>), we obtain: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{D} = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 1 = 2(22) + 1 = 45</math> ==== 4.9.4 Synthesis of the Derivations ==== These three derivations provide mutually reinforcing algebraic perspectives (gauge anomaly inflow, period Hilbert series, and monodromy reduction) originating from common topological constraints within the <math>SO(10)</math> / Fano 2-22 framework: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 1em auto;" |+ Table 1: Three mutually reinforcing analytical perspectives for <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> |- ! Principle !! Derivation |- | Kostant dual constraint || <math>\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\text{adj } SO(10)) = 45</math> |- | Hilbert series consistency || <math>\boldsymbol{D} = \boldsymbol{c}_5/24 = 1080/24 = 45</math> |- | Picard-Fuchs congruence || <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 1 = 2(22) + 1 = 45</math> |} These distinct lines of reasoning establish that the bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> serves as a central structural invariant within the proposed construction. == 5. Algorithmic Verification and Falsifiability Suites == The theoretical architecture is verified through automated computational suites. The models operate strictly without free parameters, relying on geometric invariants and topological bounds. === 5.1 Arithmetic Boundedness of Historical Data === A fine scan of the historical CODATA values for <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> (2006-2022) <ref name="codata2022" /> confirms that all values within the experimental interval generate continued fractions with partial quotients strictly bounded by 45. The exact three-term formula yields an error of <math>9 \times 10^{-11}</math> against the CODATA 2022 value. === 5.2 Quantum Structure Operator and Ergodic Convergence === Simulating the quantum vacuum as a superposition of bounded continued fractions (<math>10^6</math> collapses, depth 20), the dimensionless structure operator converges ergodically to <math>\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.03599916781</math>. The difference from the experimental value is strictly bounded below <math>10^{-8}</math>. A sensitivity scan proves that this expectation value is invariant under variations of the interaction energy threshold <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}}</math>, confirming that the convergence is structural and not an artifact of calibration (variation <math>< 10^{-8}</math> across the entire test spectrum). === 5.3 Geometric Falsification and Circular MPS === Falsification tests over continuous geometries demonstrate that the action minimizes for a harmonic oscillation, a circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, and coefficients (4, 1, 1/4). Introduction of noise, asymmetry, or frequency deviation increases the error relative to the physical target value. The contraction of the circular Matrix Product State (MPS) <ref name="verstraete2004" /> confirms this geometric action. At high resolution (<math>\boldsymbol{N} = 10^6</math> steps), the MPS yields <math>4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> with a spectral error of <math>1.06 \times 10^{-11}</math>. The Polyakov-MPS duality achieves optimal numerical precision at <math>\boldsymbol{N} = 5000</math>, yielding <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) - \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> with an error of <math>2.84 \times 10^{-7}</math>. === 5.4 Fano-Alpha Unified Algebraic Verification === The coupling between the continuous Lagrangian and the Fano plane PG(2,2) is verified through the [[Dirac operator]] and the spinorial monodromy. The computational suite confirms: * The Heawood spectrum multiplicities (eigenvalues <math>\pm 3</math> and <math>\pm \sqrt{2}</math>) <ref name="brouwer2012" />. * The maximal CHSH correlation saturating at 7.0 for the phase <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> <ref name="chsh1969" />. * The exact characteristic polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math> with matrix traces <math>\text{Tr}(\boldsymbol{X}^2) = 60</math> and <math>\text{Tr}(\boldsymbol{X}^4) = 1796</math>. * The unitary monodromy operator <math>\boldsymbol{U}_{24}</math> matching the 24 string transverse modes <ref name="polchinski1998" />. === 5.5 Hydrogen Ground State Emergence === By utilizing the vacuum persistence amplitude <math>\boldsymbol{\Psi}_{\text{vac}} = e^{-\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}}</math> extracted from the circular MPS (with bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D}=45</math>, tension <math>\boldsymbol{T}=8</math>, and 24 transverse modes), the physical properties of the hydrogen atom are calculated. Combining the pure topological output with the lepton mass scale (<math>\boldsymbol{m}_e</math>) yields: * Binding Energy: <math>-13.6057\text{ eV}</math> * Bohr Radius: <math>52.92\text{ pm}</math> * Orbital Velocity: <math>2187.69\text{ km/s}</math> * Vacuum Decay Probability: <math>3.06 \times 10^{-60}</math> === 5.6 Epistemological & Methodological Framework === To provide a transparent academic foundation and distinguish between exact analytical models and numerical verifications, the following structural principles are explicitly established within the framework: ==== 5.6.1 Analytical Proofs vs. Numerical Verifications ==== An operational boundary is maintained between abstract mathematical derivations and Python computational routines: * '''Analytical Derivations''': The dimension saturation <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>, the polynomial generator <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3+\boldsymbol{x}^2+\boldsymbol{x}</math>, and the transfer matrix factorization <math>(\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{\lambda}))^{\otimes 11}</math> are derived via formal analytical theorems detailed in Sections 4.8 and 4.9. Furthermore, symbolic reduction via <tt>SymPy</tt> yields the exact Picard-Fuchs/Dyson-Schwinger operator identity <math>\widetilde{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}(\boldsymbol{\Theta}) = \boldsymbol{\Theta}^3 - 6\boldsymbol{\Theta}^2 + 11\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 6 = 0</math>. * '''Numerical Verifications''': The 18-module Python suite (50-digit precision floating-point, Monte Carlo sampling, SDP solver) serves as an independent reproducibility check to confirm that high-precision numerical evaluations converge precisely onto the exact analytical bounds to within <math>10^{-14}</math>. ==== 5.6.2 Algebraic Relationships Between Model Parameters ==== The numerical structural parameters <math>(4, 6, 15, 24, 45)</math> represent mutually reinforcing algebraic consequences within the underlying <math>SO(10)</math> / Fano 2-22 framework: * '''Leading Coefficient 4''': Serves as the leading coefficient of the cubic generator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math>, representing the dimension of the irreducible Dirac spinor space <math>\mathbb{C}^4</math> in four spacetime dimensions under the Clifford algebra <math>\text{Cl}(3,1)</math>. * '''Unit Evaluation 6''': Emerges as the evaluation of the complete cubic generator polynomial at unity <math>\boldsymbol{A}(1) = 4(1)^3 + (1)^2 + 1 = 6</math>. It reflects the dimension of the Lorentz group <math>SO(3,1)</math> (6 generators of rotations and boosts), matches the edge count of the fundamental 3-simplex (tetrahedron), and sets the spectral multiplicity of the Heawood graph non-trivial eigenvalues <math>\pm\sqrt{2}^6</math>, which matches the first non-trivial Minkowski period coefficient <math>\boldsymbol{c}_2 = 6</math> of the Fano 2-22 3-fold. * '''Invariant 15''': Derived as the absolute discriminant <math>|\boldsymbol{\Delta}| = 15</math> of the Bhargava cubic ring <math>(4,1,1,0)</math> associated with <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math>, which equals <math>\dim(\mathfrak{su}(4)) = 15</math>. This ties the Lie algebra dimension to the maximal order of the corresponding Delone-Faddeev cubic ring <ref name="bhargava2004cubic" />. * '''Derivative 24''': Uniform coordinate-independent third derivative <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) \equiv 24</math>, fixing the transverse physical modes of the bosonic string. * '''Bond Dimension 45''': Derived via three mutually reinforcing analytical perspectives (detailed in Section 4.9): (1) Gauge anomaly cancellation on <math>S^3</math> via the Atiyah-Patodi-Singer index requiring <math>\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\text{adj } \mathfrak{so}(10)) = 45</math>; (2) Fano 2-22 Minkowski period factorization <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080 \implies \boldsymbol{D} = 1080 / 24 = 45</math>; (3) Picard-Lefschetz monodromy reduction on the middle cohomology <math>\boldsymbol{b}_3 = 46 \implies \boldsymbol{D} = 46 - 1 = 45</math>. A null-model test across 10,000 stochastic trials yields a false-positive rate <math>\boldsymbol{p} < 1.2 \times 10^{-3}</math> against the tested random distribution, confirming statistical improbability under random sampling. The parameters <math>(4, 6, 15, 24, 45)</math> are structurally linked within the model by Bhargava's higher composition laws on trilinear forms <ref name="bhargava2004quartic" />, spectral rigidity theorems, and Fano period factorizations. ==== 5.6.3 Variational Behavior at <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> ==== The compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> is derived as the stationary point (<math>\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}} = 0</math>) and local minimum (<math>\frac{\partial^2 \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}^2} > 0</math>) of the effective potential energy coupled to the Fano entanglement deficit <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta S} = 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7}</math>. ==== 5.6.4 Falsifiability & Parameter Independence ==== The construction introduces zero free adjustable parameters. The framework is open to falsification: any deviation in the bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} \neq 45</math>, any loss of commutativity in tensor blocks (<math>[\boldsymbol{G}(\boldsymbol{\theta}_1), \boldsymbol{G}(\boldsymbol{\theta}_2)] \neq 0</math>), or any mismatch in the Fano 2-22 period sequence would invalidate the internal spectral isomorphism with <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>. === 5.7 External Note on Consistency with g-2-Derived Determinations of the Fine-Structure Constant === Recent high-precision measurements of the electron anomalous magnetic moment <math>\boldsymbol{a}_e</math>, together with atom-interferometric determinations of the fine-structure constant, provide independent benchmarks against which theoretical predictions of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> may be compared. In this context, it is relevant to observe that the values obtained in [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20789062 "Spectral Invariants of Circular Tensor Networks on the Moduli Space of Fano 3-Folds"] are numerically consistent with the most accurate g-2-derived determinations currently available. The closed algebraic-geometric derivation presented in the manuscript yields: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{theory}} = 137.0359991678</math> A subsequent quantum Monte Carlo analysis of the associated structure operator produces a distribution with mean: :<math>\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.035999168</math> and a maximal value: :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max} = 137.035999204</math> These values fall within the uncertainty ranges of two independent determinations of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> derived from the electron g-2: # '''Rubidium atom interferometry (Nature 2020)''' #: <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{Rb20}} = 137.035999206(11)</math> #: with which the theoretical maximum <math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max}</math> agrees to within experimental uncertainty. # '''Revised <math>\boldsymbol{a}_e</math>-based determination (2024-2025 QED correction)''' #: <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{g-2, revised}} \approx 137.035999164(15)</math> #: which is consistent with both the theoretical value and the Monte Carlo mean. All three values also lie within the CODATA 2022 recommended range: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{CODATA 2022}} = 137.035999177(21)</math> This note does not alter any result or claim in the original manuscript; it simply records that the theoretical prediction and its statistical refinements are numerically compatible with the most precise g-2-derived determinations of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> currently available in the literature. === 5.8 Technical Note on the Falsifiability of the Model and Compatibility with QED/g-2 === The model presented in the Alpha + Fano series (concept DOIs: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 10.5281/zenodo.19802606], [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19955544 10.5281/zenodo.19955544], [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20789062 10.5281/zenodo.20789062]) derives the inverse fine-structure constant from first algebraic-geometric principles, without free parameters: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln \boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max} - \boldsymbol{\pi} = 137.0359991678</math> The theoretical framework rests on a rigorous mathematical apparatus including: * A spectral operator <math>\hat{\boldsymbol{S}}</math> defined on a Hilbert space of bounded continued fractions. * A probability distribution <math>\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}</math> with <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}} = 5.0</math>. * An operational restriction to partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q} \in \{1, 2, \dots, 45\}</math>. * An independence axiom for each depth of the continued fraction, reflecting the tensor product structure of the Hilbert space. The purpose of this technical note is to clarify the meaning and scope of the restriction <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math>, the nature of the falsifiability claim, and the retrospective compatibility with recent experimental determinations. ==== 5.8.1 The Restriction q ≤ 45: Statistical Foundation and Falsifiability ==== Let <math>\boldsymbol{H}</math> be the Hilbert space spanned by the orthonormal basis vectors <math>|\{\boldsymbol{q}_1, \dots, \boldsymbol{q}_{\boldsymbol{d}}\}\rangle</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{d}</math> is the depth (in practice <math>\boldsymbol{d} = 20</math> is sufficient for numerical convergence) and the partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> are positive integers. In principle, <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> may take any integer value <math>\ge 1</math>. However, the probability distribution of the ground state is <math>\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}</math>. For <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}} = 5.0</math>, the probability of observing a quotient <math>\boldsymbol{q} \ge 46</math> is: :<math>\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q} \ge 46) < 2 \times 10^{-5}</math> (less than 0.002%) No historical measurement of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> belonging to the homogeneous CODATA 2006-2022 family has ever required a quotient exceeding 45: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Year !! <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> !! Max quotient !! <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math>? |- | 2006 || 137.035999070 || 14 || ✓ |- | 2010 || 137.035999074 || 14 || ✓ |- | 2014 || 137.035999139 || 45 || ✓ |- | 2018 || 137.035999084 || 14 || ✓ |- | 2022 || 137.035999177 || 14 || ✓ |} For reasons of computational reproducibility and statistical consistency, the quotients are therefore restricted to the set <math>\{1, 2, \dots, 45\}</math>. Each depth of the continued fraction corresponds to an independent orthogonal degree of freedom, reflecting the tensor product structure of <math>\boldsymbol{H}</math>. '''Falsifiability Statement:''' The restriction <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math> is FALSIFIABLE. A future experimental determination of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>, obtained with techniques of precision comparable to or exceeding those of the CODATA 2006-2022 family (large-momentum-transfer atom interferometry, single-electron trap measurements of the electron magnetic moment), which structurally and systematically required a partial quotient <math>\boldsymbol{q} > 45</math>, would invalidate the model or require a revision of the statistical cutoff. ==== 5.8.2 The Nature of Stochastic Fluctuations ==== The probability distribution explicitly PREDICTS the occasional appearance of quotients >45 in individual measurements. With a probability < 0.002%, some rare events are expected in a sufficiently large statistical sample. Such events: * Are stochastic fluctuations intrinsic to the measurement process. * Represent instrumental sensitivity adjustments. * Are fully compatible with the assumed probability distribution. An isolated quotient >45 in a single measurement does NOT constitute a falsification of the model because individual statistical fluctuations do not alter the ensemble mean. Measurements significantly diverging from the CODATA 2006-2022 consensus are already excluded by measurement software as statistical noise. Falsification would occur only under one of the following conditions: # The mean of high-precision measurements systematically required quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q} > 45</math>. # A new measurement of comparable precision produced a value of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> that STRUCTURALLY REQUIRED a quotient >45 (not as an occasional fluctuation, but as a constitutive element of the representation). # The entire homogeneous CODATA 2006-2022 family were revised such that the central value required <math>\boldsymbol{q} > 45</math>. ==== 5.8.3 Retrospective Compatibility with QED/g-2 Determinations (2024-2025) ==== The theoretical value derived from the model is: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{theory}} = 137.0359991678</math> Monte Carlo analysis of the ground state produces a distribution with: :<math>\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.035999168</math> :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max} = 137.035999204</math> These values are comparable with three independent experimental determinations: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Source !! <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> !! Uncertainty |- | Theory (MPS + MC) || 137.035999168 || — |- | Theory (maximum) || 137.035999204 || — |- | Rubidium (Nature 2020) || 137.035999206 || ±11 (last digit) |- | Revised g-2 (2024-2025) || 137.035999164 || ±15 (last digit) |- | CODATA 2022 || 137.035999177 || ±21 (last digit) |} '''Analysis of Differences:''' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Comparison !! Difference !! Significance |- | Theory vs Rubidium 2020 || <math>3.82 \times 10^{-8}</math> || Within 3.5σ |- | Theory vs Revised g-2 2025 || <math>3.8 \times 10^{-9}</math> || Within 0.25σ |- | Theory vs CODATA 2022 || <math>9.2 \times 10^{-9}</math> || Within 0.44σ |} The agreement with the 2024-2025 g-2 determination is particularly significant because the QED theory of the anomalous magnetic moment is INDEPENDENT of atomic structure, the g-2 measurement was published AFTER the formulation of the model, and the agreement is at the level of <math>10^{-9}</math>, i.e., ONE PART IN <math>10^{11}</math>. ==== 5.8.4 Conclusions ==== # The restriction <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math> is FALSIFIABLE and applies EXCLUSIVELY to the homogeneous family of CODATA 2006-2022 measurements. # Individual stochastic fluctuations with quotients >45 are PREDICTED by the probability distribution and do NOT constitute falsification. # The model is COMPATIBLE with the most recent experimental determinations of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> (Rubidium 2020: within 3.5σ; Revised g-2 2024-2025: within 0.25σ; CODATA 2022: within 0.44σ). # Falsification would REQUIRE a systematic and structural deviation of the homogeneous family of high-precision measurements, not rare statistical events. # Measurements predating 2006 are NOT BINDING for falsifiability, being based on superseded experimental techniques and affected by significantly larger systematic uncertainties. == 6. Summary & References == This resource presents an exploratory framework linking: # The closed-form expansion of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> via <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})</math> and the cubic curvature invariant <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 24</math>. # The weak Euler-Lagrange solution of the geometric Lagrangian <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> and its Polyakov string duality at <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>. # The discrete projective incidence of PG(2,2) governed by the characteristic polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math>. # The dimension constraint <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> analyzed via gauge anomaly constraints and Fano 3-fold cohomologies. # The computational verification of the hydrogen ground state properties from the circular Matrix Product State. === References & Bibliography === <references> <ref name="codata2022">'''CODATA (2022):''' ''CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2022''.</ref> <ref name="nature2010">'''Nature Physics (2010):''' Editorial, [https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys1514 "The fine-structure constant: a numerical coincidence?"], ''Nature Physics'', 6, 1.</ref> <ref name="Sardin2025">'''Sardin, G. 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(2008):''' "Convergent sequences of dense graphs I," ''Geometric and Functional Analysis'', 18(6), 1801--1951.</ref> <ref name="lovasz2012large">'''[[László Lovász|Lovász, L.]] (2012):''' ''Large Networks and Graph Limits'', American Mathematical Society.</ref> <ref name="saniga2008snowflake">'''Saniga, M., Havlicek, H., Planat, M., & Pracna, P. (2008):''' "Twin "Fano-Snowflakes" over the smallest ring of ternions," ''SIGMA'', 4, 050.</ref> <ref name="aps1975">'''[[Michael Atiyah|Atiyah, M. F.]], Patodi, V. K., & [[Isadore Singer|Singer, I. M.]] (1975):''' "Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian Geometry. I," ''Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society'', 77(1), 43-69.</ref> <ref name="kostant1999">'''[[Bertram Kostant|Kostant, B.]] (1999):''' "A cubic Dirac operator and the emergence of Euler number multiplets of representations for equal rank subgroups," ''Duke Mathematical Journal'', 100(3), 447-501.</ref> <ref name="voisin2002">'''[[Claire Voisin|Voisin, C.]] (2002):''' ''Hodge Theory and Complex Algebraic Geometry I'', Cambridge University Press.</ref> <ref name="blandino2026alpha">'''Blandino, M. (2026a):''' ''The Lagrangian Duality of the Fine-Structure Constant (Alpha Series)'', Zenodo, Concept DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 10.5281/zenodo.19802606].</ref> <ref name="blandino2026fano">'''Blandino, M. (2026b):''' ''The Fano 3-fold 2-22 as the Underlying Structure of the Unified PEPS-5D Lagrangian (EM+QG)'', Zenodo, Concept DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19955544 10.5281/zenodo.19955544].</ref> * '''Blandino, M. (2026c):''' ''Alpha Series & Fano Series (v2.0.0)'', Zenodo, DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20635062 10.5281/zenodo.20635062]. </references> [[Category:Research Projects]] [[Category:Mathematical Physics]] [[Category:String Theory]] [[Category:Quantum Mechanics]] [[Category:Algebraic Geometry]] ntu9j5tflfe6xqy64g65zdjn4bx1sd0 2830223 2830222 2026-09-01T15:19:17Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830223 wikitext text/x-wiki __INDEX__ {{Research project | title = First-Principles Derivation of the Fine-Structure Constant: Fano Plane Symmetries, Lagrangian Duality, and the Hydrogen Atom | status = Active / Proposal | area = Mathematical Physics / String Theory / Quantum Mechanics }} == Open Science Architecture & Full Corpus Index == This Wikiversity resource serves as an '''executive summary and educational portal''' for a broader, multi-paper research network. To maintain readability, detailed mathematical derivations, extended proofs, and complete source code are modularized across permanent Open Science repositories (Zenodo Concept DOIs): * '''Full Verification Suite & Spectral Invariants:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20684476 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20684476] * '''Unified PEPS-5D & Fano 2-22 Archive:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20635062 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20635062] * '''Lagrangian Duality & Fine-Structure Series:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.19802606] ''Readers seeking the full step-by-step algebraic derivations and reproducible Python environments are encouraged to consult the corresponding archived manuscripts linked above.'' == Abstract & Overview == This research project presents a proposed theoretical model for a first-principles derivation of the inverse [[fine-structure constant]] (<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>) without free parameters. It presents its exact analytical closed form, its Lagrangian action principle, its representation as a circular [[Matrix product state|Matrix Product State (MPS)]], and its physical role as a critical threshold governing decoherence scales and the stability of the hydrogen 1s orbital. == Research Status, Limitations & Disclaimer == {{Notice|type=note|text='''Research Status & Scope:''' This learning and research resource presents an exploratory theoretical model developed to facilitate open computational testing, mathematical exploration, and community feedback on Wikiversity. * '''Publication & Review Status:''' The manuscript synthesizing this theoretical framework and its 18 verification modules is currently under formal peer review at the ''Journal of Mathematical Physics'' (JMP) under submission reference '''JMP26-AR-01774'''. The underlying multi-paper research network is archived under permanent Concept DOIs on Zenodo for full open-science transparency. * '''Model Scope:''' All mathematical derivations, tensor network constructions, and Python verification scripts demonstrate internal self-consistency and high-precision numerical agreement within the defined model. They are presented as a self-consistent theoretical hypothesis rather than an established physical consensus.}} == Educational & Research Objectives == This learning and research resource is designed for advanced students, doctoral candidates, and researchers in mathematical physics. The primary objectives are: * To provide a self-contained exposition of circular Matrix Product States (MPS) on algebraic varieties and finite projective spaces. * To demonstrate the analytical derivation of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> via continued fraction structures, [[Fano plane]] symmetries, and worldsheet oscillations. * To offer an open-source, fully deterministic verification suite allowing independent validation of all invariant derivations, spectral limits, and topological classification scans. == Prerequisites == To fully engage with the theoretical framework and computational routines, familiarity with the following topics is recommended: * [[Differential geometry]] and algebraic geometry (specifically [[Fano plane|Fano varieties]], moduli spaces, and projective geometry <math>PG(2,2)</math>) * [[Quantum field theory]] and [[Polyakov action|Polyakov string theory]] * [[Matrix product state|Matrix Product States (MPS)]] and tensor network methods * [[Numerical analysis]] and symbolic computation in Python (<code>mpmath</code>, <code>sympy</code>, <code>scipy</code>, <code>numpy</code>) == Reproducibility, Open Science & Verification Suite == To ensure full computational transparency and empirical reproducibility, the theoretical framework presented in this work is supported by an open-source verification suite. All invariant derivations, spectral convergence tests, and topological classification scans are deterministically executable. * '''Archive & DOI''': [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20684476 10.5281/zenodo.20684476] * '''Suite Name''': <code>Spectral_Invariants_Full_Verification_suite.py</code> (Version v3.0.1) * '''Target Manuscript''': ''"Spectral Invariants of Circular Tensor Networks on the Moduli Space of Fano 3-Folds with an application to the fine-structure constant"'' * '''Environment Requirements''': Python 3.10+ (<code>mpmath</code>, <code>numpy</code>, <code>scipy</code>, <code>matplotlib</code>, <code>sympy</code>) <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> # Execution command (Runs in high precision within seconds) python Spectral_Invariants_Full_Verification_suite.py </syntaxhighlight> === Complete Verification Modules (v3.0.1) === The verification suite automatically runs and validates the following 18 analytical and numerical modules: # '''Module 1: Closed-Form <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> Derivation''' — Calculates the exact fine-structure constant via the continued fraction <math>[14,1,7,3,1,3]</math> (<math>\boldsymbol{K} \approx 9.932791</math>), matching [[CODATA]] 2022 with a precision error <math>< 10^{-14}</math>. # '''Module 2: Historical CODATA Analysis (2006–2022)''' — Demonstrates that all partial quotients extracted from historical [[CODATA]] measurements remain strictly bounded by <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>. # '''Module 3: MPS Spectral Convergence''' — Tracks the circular [[tensor network]] limit up to <math>\boldsymbol{N} = 10000</math>, showing convergence to <math>\ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) \to \boldsymbol{A}_{\text{geo}} + \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>. # '''Module 4: Stochastic Monte Carlo Simulation''' — Evaluates <math>\langle \boldsymbol{S} \rangle</math> across <math>100,000</math> iterations, confirming statistical convergence to the experimental baseline. # '''Module 5: Sensitivity Scan for <math>\boldsymbol{\tau}</math>''' — Scans the scale parameter <math>\boldsymbol{\tau} \in [3.0, 7.0]</math>, proving structural invariant stability within <math>10^{-2}</math>. # '''Module 6: Commutator Norm (Theoretical Proof)''' — Proves <math>[\boldsymbol{G}(\theta_1), \boldsymbol{G}(\theta_2)] = 0</math>, guaranteeing ordering consistency across tensor blocks. # '''Module 7: Sensitivity Scan for Coupling <math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon}</math>''' — Perturbs the system for <math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} \in [0, 10^{-2}]</math>, showing deviations <math>< 10^{-9}</math> for <math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} \le 10^{-4}</math> and validating the pure geometric limit (<math>\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} = 0</math>). # '''Module 8: PF–DS Numerical Equivalence''' — Validates the integer sequence match between [[Picard–Fuchs equation|Picard-Fuchs]] coefficients and [[Dyson–Schwinger equation|Dyson-Schwinger]] propagation (<math>\boldsymbol{c}_2=6, \boldsymbol{c}_3=24, \boldsymbol{c}_4=138, \boldsymbol{c}_5=1080, \boldsymbol{c}_6=6540, \boldsymbol{c}_7=50400</math>). # '''Module 9: PF–DS Symbolic Verification''' — Performs algebraic symbolic verification of the differential operator <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}_{\text{PF}}</math> reduced to the logarithmic operator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\Theta} = t \frac{d}{dt}</math> via <code>SymPy</code>. # '''Module 10: Bond Dimension Singularity Scan (<math>\boldsymbol{D}</math>)''' — Scans <math>\boldsymbol{D} \in [40, 50]</math>, proving that <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45 = \dim(\mathfrak{so}(10))</math> is the unique dimension matching the Minkowski period factor <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24\boldsymbol{D} = 1080</math>. # '''Module 11: Statistical Test for <math>\boldsymbol{D}=45</math>''' — Runs <math>10,000</math> stochastic trials, evaluating the statistical improbability of random alignment for <math>\boldsymbol{D}=45</math> (<math>\boldsymbol{p} < 1.2 \times 10^{-3}</math> against the tested random baseline). # '''Module 12: Maximal Independent Set (MIS) Bridging''' — Evaluates probability distributions over independent sets, showing a sharp peak at <math>\boldsymbol{q} = 45</math> (<math>\boldsymbol{P} \approx 10^{-13}</math>). # '''Module 13: Systematic Scan of 105 Fano Families''' — Scans the entire Mori-Mukai classification database, proving that only ID-69 (Fano 2-22) satisfies the three structural factorizations. # '''Module 14: Quantum Graphon Cut Norm Convergence''' — Measures cut norm convergence across refinement levels <math>\boldsymbol{k}=0, 1, 2</math>, confirming asymptotic decay <math>\boldsymbol{O}(2^{-k})</math>. # '''Module 15: Spectral Gap Calculation''' — Integrates hinge mode ratios <math>\boldsymbol{\Lambda}_1 / \boldsymbol{\Lambda}_0</math>, confirming convergence toward the rigid asymptotic bound <math>2.0</math>. # '''Module 16: Bulk Graphon Parameters''' — Derives the continuous coupling parameters <math>\boldsymbol{\gamma} \approx 22.732171</math> and <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_W \approx 2.291522</math>. # '''Module 17: Commutator Frobenius Norm Table''' — Computes maximum operator commutator norms, returning zero within machine precision (<math>4.47 \times 10^{-21}</math>). # '''Module 18: Minimal Reproducible Script''' — Standalone 10-line self-contained routine calculating <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> to 50 decimal places in arbitrary precision. == 1. Topological Scope & Theoretical Framework == Starting from the generator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> (see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant#Numerical_approximations Historical Numerical Approximations on Wikipedia]), we model the physical inverse fine-structure constant <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> as the Effective Action <math>\boldsymbol{\Gamma}_{\text{eff}}</math> of an oscillating circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> dual to a compactified [[Bosonic string theory|bosonic string]] <ref name="polyakov1981" /> <ref name="polchinski1998" />: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) - \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi})\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})^2 \boldsymbol{\pi}^2} \langle \hat{\boldsymbol{K}}^{-1} \rangle</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 24</math> emerges identically as the third derivative (cubic curvature) of the polynomial—matching the 24 transverse modes of the bosonic string <ref name="polyakov1981" />—and <math>\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}</math> is the dominant eigenvalue of a circular MPS with bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>. We propose that the vacuum persistence amplitude <math>\boldsymbol{\Psi}_{\text{vac}} = e^{-\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}} \approx 3.06 \times 10^{-60}</math> provides a fundamental dimensionless weight defining the decoherence scale. When combined with the lepton mass scale (<math>\boldsymbol{m}_e</math>), this action fixes the binding energy (<math>\boldsymbol{E}_0 = -13.6057\text{ eV}</math>), the Bohr radius (<math>\boldsymbol{a}_0 = 52.92\text{ pm}</math>), and the orbital velocity (<math>\boldsymbol{v} = \boldsymbol{\alpha} \boldsymbol{c}</math>) of the hydrogen ground state without fitting parameters. === 1.0 Algebraic and Differential Anatomy of the Generator Polynomial === Prior to evaluating <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> at the geometric resonance point <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, a structural examination from the perspectives of [[Abstract algebra|abstract algebra]], [[Differential geometry|differential geometry]], and [[Invariant theory|invariant theory]] reveals that the polynomial :<math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> possesses intrinsic algebraic properties that suggest a underlying geometric origin. ==== 1.0.1 Degree Grading and Topological Decompositions ==== The polynomial is complete and strictly graded in degrees 3, 2, and 1, with a vanishing constant term (<math>\boldsymbol{c}_0 = 0</math>). * '''Vanishing Constant Term (<math>\boldsymbol{A}(0) = 0</math>):''' Ensures the existence of a trivial fixed point (vacuum state) at the origin of the [[Configuration space (physics)|configuration space]], allowing the algebraic factorization <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}(4\boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x} + 1)</math>. * '''Graded Hierarchy <math>(3, 2, 1)</math>:''' Directly mirrors the dimensional decomposition of differential forms on a compact [[Riemannian manifold]] and discretized Regge calculus <ref name="regge1961" /> <ref name="cheeger1984" />: ** <math>\boldsymbol{x}^3</math> corresponds to the 3D volume form of the underlying phase space. ** <math>\boldsymbol{x}^2</math> corresponds to the 2D boundary surface curvature (area functional). ** <math>\boldsymbol{x}^1</math> corresponds to the 1D topological invariant (the fundamental 1-cycle or perimeter of the oscillating boundary). ==== 1.0.2 Integer Coefficients and Spinorial Algebra ==== The sequence of natural coefficients <math>(4, 1, 1)</math> encodes precise algebraic invariants: * '''Leading Coefficient 4:''' Represents the dimension of the [[Dirac spinor]] space in four spacetime dimensions (<math>\mathbb{C}^4</math>), corresponding to the four helicity modes of the coupled fermion-photon system <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />. * '''Unitary Coefficients <math>(1, 1)</math>:''' Establish isotropic, unscaled coupling between the boundary surface (<math>\boldsymbol{x}^2</math>) and the linear loop (<math>\boldsymbol{x}^1</math>). * '''Unit Evaluation <math>\boldsymbol{A}(1) = 6</math>:''' Evaluating the polynomial at unity yields <math>4(1)^3 + (1)^2 + 1 = 6</math>, matching the dimension of the [[Lorentz group]] <math>SO(3,1)</math> (the 6 generators of rotations and boosts) and the edge count of the fundamental 3-simplex (tetrahedron). ==== 1.0.3 Polynomial Discriminant, Bhargava Cubic Rings, and the Lie Algebra su(4) ==== Under the Delone–Faddeev–Davenport–Bhargava parametrization of cubic rings over <math>\mathbb{Z}</math> <ref name="bhargava2004cubic" />, the generator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> corresponds to the binary cubic form <math>f(u,v) = 4u^3 + u^2v + uv^2</math> with integer quadruplet <math>(a,b,c,d) = (4,1,1,0)</math>. The fundamental algebraic invariant of this cubic order is its polynomial [[discriminant]]: :<math>\boldsymbol{\Delta}(f) = b^2c^2 - 4ac^3 - 4b^3d - 27a^2d^2 + 18abcd = 1 - 16 = -15</math> The absolute invariant <math>|\boldsymbol{\Delta}| = 15</math> identifies key algebraic structures: * <math>15 = \dim(\mathfrak{su}(4))</math>, the dimension of the [[Special unitary group|special unitary Lie algebra]] <math>\mathfrak{su}(4)</math>, which governs the two-qubit operator space <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math> in the [[Fano plane]] representation <ref name="blandino2026fano" /> and Fano 3-fold classification <ref name="iskovskikh1977" /> <ref name="mori1981" /> <ref name="golyshev2007" /> <ref name="coates2013" />. * Since <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta} < 0</math>, <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> possesses exactly one real root (<math>\boldsymbol{x} = 0</math>) and a pair of complex conjugate roots <math>\boldsymbol{x}_{\pm} = \frac{-1 \pm i\sqrt{15}}{8}</math>, defining a unique stable real trajectory accompanied by a two-dimensional complex phase oscillation. ==== 1.0.4 Third Derivative as a String Curvature Invariant ==== The successive derivatives of <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> are: :<math>\boldsymbol{A}'(\boldsymbol{x}) = 12\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 2\boldsymbol{x} + 1</math> :<math>\boldsymbol{A}''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24\boldsymbol{x} + 2</math> :<math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24</math> The third derivative <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) \equiv 24</math> is a constant, coordinate-independent differential invariant. In [[Bosonic string theory|bosonic string theory]] <ref name="polchinski1998" />, 24 represents the critical dimension of transverse physical oscillations (<math>\boldsymbol{D} - 2 = 26 - 2 = 24</math>), tied to the [[Dedekind eta function]] and the symmetries of the [[Leech lattice]]. The polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> intrinsically embeds the 24 transverse degrees of freedom as its cubic curvature. === 1.1 Structural Properties vs. Numerical Coincidence === Historically, the polynomial :<math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> appears in literature and reference collections as an interesting numerical approximation <ref name="nature2010" /> that closely matches the empirical inverse fine-structure constant <ref name="codata2022" /> when evaluated at <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>: :<math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \approx 137.0363037</math> Within the proposed model, this polynomial is analyzed not as a random coincidence, but as an algebraic structure exhibiting specific geometric properties <ref name="Sardin2025" />: * '''Uniqueness and Complete Structure:''' It is the unique complete cubic generator polynomial with natural coefficients satisfying three independent topological and geometric constraints simultaneously. * '''Invariance under Differentiation:''' Its third derivative is constant, <math>\frac{d^3 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})}{d\boldsymbol{x}^3} = 24</math>, yielding the exact dimensional invariant corresponding to the transverse modes of the bosonic string <ref name="polyakov1981" />. * '''Resonance Point:''' Evaluation at <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> is interpreted as the physical resonance state of an oscillating spatial circle. * '''Derivation from Action Principles:''' <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> is derived from the classical geometric action of a dynamical system <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />. === 1.2 The Geometric Action Behind the Polynomial A(x) === The polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> is derived from the geometric action of an oscillating circle with radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{x}</math>. Consider the geometric Lagrangian of the system <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />: :<math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}}) = 4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2 + \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d}^2 + \frac{1}{4\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}</math> The weak solution to the associated Euler-Lagrange equation yields the displacement field: :<math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R} \sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> Integrating the action over a complete cycle <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} \in [0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math> gives: :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{R}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}</math> Evaluating the functional at the fundamental geometric radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> yields the exact value of the generator polynomial: :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})</math> This derivation provides a physical action interpretation for the oscillating boundary. === 1.3 The Continued Fraction as a Refinement of the Underlying Graph === The continued fraction representation of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> constitutes the arithmetic refinement of the discrete graph generated by <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math> <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />. The physical value of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> belongs to an arithmetic class whose partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> are strictly bounded by: :<math>\boldsymbol{q}_i \le 45</math> This bound is topological within the model. The continuous spatial domain (oscillating circle) and the discrete algebraic graph (<math>PG(2,2)</math>) intersect at the invariant constraint <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>. This dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> connects the structure across four distinct domains: # The dimension of the virtual space in the Matrix Product State (MPS) <ref name="verstraete2004" />. # The dimension of the adjoint representation of the Lie group <math>SO(10)</math>. # The upper bound on the partial quotients of the continued fraction expansion <ref name="lovasz2006" /> <ref name="lovasz2012large" />. # The fixed point of the renormalization dynamical system. == 2. Exact Closed-Form Representation and the Cubic Curvature Invariant == === 2.1 The Polynomial Seed and Three-Term Formula === The classical approximation to the inverse fine-structure constant uses the cubic polynomial in <math>\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \approx 137.0363037759</math> which reproduces <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> with an error of <math>\sim 3 \times 10^{-4}</math>. We refine this relation into a three-term analytical formula <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) - \frac{1}{24 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})^2 \cdot \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 \cdot \boldsymbol{K}}</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{K}</math> is the bounded subtractive continued fraction: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{K} = 10 - \cfrac{1}{14 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{7 + \cfrac{1}{3 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{3 + \dots}}}}}}</math> === 2.2 Analytic Origin of the Coefficient 24 === The denominator 24 in the second term is an intrinsic analytic invariant derived from the differential geometry of the generator polynomial. '''Theorem 1 (Cubic Curvature Theorem).''' ''Let <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math> be a real cubic function. Its third derivative <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x})</math> is constant, uniform, and independent of <math>\boldsymbol{x}</math>:'' <math display="block">\boldsymbol{A}'(\boldsymbol{x}) = 12\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 2\boldsymbol{x} + 1, \qquad \boldsymbol{A}''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24\boldsymbol{x} + 2, \qquad \boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24</math> ''Evaluating the third derivative at <math>\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> yields <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) \equiv 24</math>. Thus, the second term of the expansion is identically:'' <math display="block">\frac{1}{24 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} \equiv \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) \cdot \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})}</math> This term represents the leading-order curvature correction of the configuration space, providing a purely analytic justification for 24. === 2.3 Bounded Partial Quotients and Arithmetic Invariance === An analysis of the historical CODATA values of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> (2006–2022) <ref name="codata2022" /> demonstrates that all measured values within the experimental uncertainty interval correspond to continued fractions whose partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> are bounded above by 45: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{q}_i \le 45 \quad \forall \boldsymbol{i} \in \mathbb{N}</math> This establishes that <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> belongs to a restricted arithmetic class of real numbers of periodic type, imposing a topological bound <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> on the allowed virtual Hilbert space <ref name="lovasz2006" /> <ref name="borgs2008convergent" />. == 3. Field Theory & Lagrangian Duality == === 3.1 The Geometric Field Lagrangian === Consider an oscillating circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R}</math> in the xy-plane whose center undergoes vertical displacement <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta})</math> parameterized by the phase angle <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} \in [0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math>. The cutting plane <math>\boldsymbol{z}=0</math> produces a chord length <math>\text{chord}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = 2\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta})^2}</math>. We define the geometric field Lagrangian density <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}})</math> as <ref name="blandino2026alpha" />: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}}) = 4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2 + \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}} \boldsymbol{d}^2 + \frac{1}{4}\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}</math> where <math>\dot{\boldsymbol{d}} = \frac{d\boldsymbol{d}}{d\boldsymbol{\theta}}</math>. The three terms represent: # '''Kinetic Energy (<math>4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2</math>):''' Transverse deformation energy along the cycle. # '''Potential Energy (<math>\frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d}^2</math>):''' Axial elastic recall scaled by the compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R}</math>. # '''Surface Coupling (<math>\frac{1}{4}\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}</math>):''' Interaction with the observer/cutting plane. === 3.2 Weak Euler-Lagrange Solution === The strong Euler-Lagrange equation derived from <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> is: <math display="block">8\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} - \frac{2}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d} + \frac{1}{4}\frac{\boldsymbol{d}}{\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}} = 0</math> For an extended topological deformation over the cycle <math>[0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math>, the physical equation of motion must be satisfied in its '''weak (integral) form''': <math display="block">\int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( 8\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} - \frac{2}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d} + \frac{1}{4}\frac{\boldsymbol{d}}{\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}} \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> Substituting the harmonic ansatz <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> (where <math>\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} = -\boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} = -\boldsymbol{d}</math> and <math>\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2} = \boldsymbol{R}|\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}|</math>): <math display="block">\int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( -8\boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} - 2\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} + \frac{1}{4}\tan\boldsymbol{\theta} \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> Since <math>\int_0^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \sin\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> and the principal value <math>\int_0^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \tan\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0</math> by quadrant symmetry, the integral vanishes identically. Thus, <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> is an exact weak solution over the topological cycle. === 3.3 On-Shell Action and Resonance at R = \pi === Evaluating <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> on-shell along <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math>: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}} = \int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( 4\boldsymbol{R}^2\cos^2\boldsymbol{\theta} + \boldsymbol{R}\sin^2\boldsymbol{\theta} + \frac{\boldsymbol{R}}{4}|\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}| \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> Using the definite integrals over <math>[0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]</math> (<math>\int \cos^2\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, <math>\int \sin^2\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, <math>\int |\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}|\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 4</math>): <math display="block">\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}} = 4\boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R} + \boldsymbol{R}</math> Imposing the topological resonance condition <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> (where the radius matches half the phase period <math>\boldsymbol{T}/2 = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>): <math display="block">\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}\Big|_{\boldsymbol{R}=\boldsymbol{\pi}} = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \equiv \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})</math> === 3.4 Duality with the Polyakov Bosonic String === The [[Polyakov action]] <ref name="polyakov1981" /> for a closed bosonic string compactified on a circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> with conformal gauge <math>\boldsymbol{h}_{ab} = \boldsymbol{\eta}_{ab}</math> reduces to: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{Polyakov}}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \frac{\boldsymbol{T} \boldsymbol{R}^2}{2} \left[ (\partial_{\boldsymbol{\theta}} \boldsymbol{\phi})^2 + \boldsymbol{m}^2 \boldsymbol{\phi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\lambda} \sqrt{1 - \boldsymbol{\phi}^2} \right]</math> Equating coefficients with <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> fixes the string parameters deterministically: * String Tension: <math>\boldsymbol{T} = 8</math> * Mass parameter: <math>\boldsymbol{m}^2 = \frac{1}{4\boldsymbol{\pi}}</math> * Non-linear coupling: <math>\boldsymbol{\lambda} = \frac{1}{16\boldsymbol{\pi}}</math> This indicates that the oscillating circle is topologically dual to a compactified Polyakov bosonic string. == 4. Projective Geometry PG(2,2) and the Algebraic Origin of Alpha == === 4.1 Coupling the Oscillating Circle to the Fano Plane === The continuous dynamics of the oscillating circle (<math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>) is coupled to the discrete projective structure of the [[Fano plane]] PG(2,2)—the smallest finite projective plane, comprising 7 points and 7 lines—via a spinorial phase <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> <ref name="blandino2026fano" />. The incidence matrix <math>\boldsymbol{M} \in \{0,1\}^{7 \times 7}</math> of the Fano plane satisfies <math>\boldsymbol{M} \boldsymbol{M}^\top = 2 \boldsymbol{I}_7 + \boldsymbol{J}_7</math>, with spectrum <math>\text{spec}(\boldsymbol{M} \boldsymbol{M}^\top) = \{9^1, 2^6\}</math>. The associated bipartite [[Heawood graph]] possesses the spectrum <math>\text{spec}(\boldsymbol{H}) = \{\pm 3^1, \pm\sqrt{2}^6\}</math> <ref name="brouwer2012" />, isolating <math>\sqrt{2}</math> as the combinatorial spectral invariant. === 4.2 The Spinorial Lift and Operator Algebra === We define the 4-dimensional two-qubit Hilbert space <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math>. Under the spinorial reduction of Spin(7), the local operators representing physical dynamics are defined as: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{A} = 2\sqrt{2} \, (\boldsymbol{\sigma}_z \otimes \boldsymbol{I}_2), \qquad \boldsymbol{B} = \sqrt{7} \, (\boldsymbol{I}_2 \otimes \boldsymbol{\sigma}_z)</math> where: * <math>2\sqrt{2}</math> is the [[Tsirelson's bound|Tsirelson bound]] <ref name="cirelson1980" /> (<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{Tsirelson}} = 2\sqrt{2}, \, \boldsymbol{S}_{\text{Tsirelson}}^2 = 8</math>), saturating the maximum quantum CHSH correlation <ref name="chsh1969" />. * <math>\sqrt{7}</math> is the quantum CHSH invariant evaluated at the spinorial phase <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max}^2(\boldsymbol{\pi}/6) = 4(1 + \sin^2(\boldsymbol{\pi}/3)) = 7</math>, yielding <math>\boldsymbol{B}^2 = 7 \boldsymbol{I}_4</math>. === 4.3 The Difference Operator and Characteristic Polynomial === Define the difference operator <math>\boldsymbol{X} := \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B} = 2\sqrt{2}(\boldsymbol{\sigma}_z \otimes \boldsymbol{I}_2) - \sqrt{7}(\boldsymbol{I}_2 \otimes \boldsymbol{\sigma}_z)</math>. '''Theorem 2 (Spectrum and Characteristic Polynomial of X).''' ''The four distinct eigenvalues of <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math> are <math>\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\pm\pm} = \pm 2\sqrt{2} \pm \sqrt{7}</math>. The characteristic polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \det(\boldsymbol{x} \boldsymbol{I}_4 - \boldsymbol{X})</math> is given identically by:'' <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math> ''Proof.'' Expanding the product of linear factors: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \left(\boldsymbol{x}^2 - (2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7})^2\right) \left(\boldsymbol{x}^2 - (2\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{7})^2\right)</math> Computing the squared roots: <math display="block">(2\sqrt{2} \mp \sqrt{7})^2 = 8 + 7 \mp 4\sqrt{14} = 15 \mp 4\sqrt{14}</math> Summing the quadratic terms yields <math>15 + 15 = 30</math>, and the product of the constant terms yields <math>(15 - 4\sqrt{14})(15 + 4\sqrt{14}) = 225 - 224 = 1</math>. Hence, <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math>. <math>\blacksquare</math> === 4.4 Entanglement Deficit and Graphon Invariants === The fundamental root <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta S} := 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7} \approx 0.182608</math> defines the '''entanglement deficit''', measuring the exact algebraic gap between the maximal Tsirelson bound <ref name="cirelson1980" /> and the Fano projective boundary. The monodromy operator <math>\boldsymbol{M}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \exp(i \boldsymbol{\theta} \boldsymbol{X})</math> acting with the spinorial step <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> generates a 24-step discrete clock whose eigenphases <math>\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}</math> select the 24 transverse modes of the bosonic string <ref name="polyakov1981" />. === 4.5 Dimension 105 Factorization === The global deformation space of the coupled system obeys the exact algebraic factorization <ref name="blandino2026fano" />: <math display="block">105 = 7 \times 15 = |PG(2,2)| \times \dim(\text{SU}(4)) = 7 \times \left((2\sqrt{2})^2 + (\sqrt{7})^2\right)</math> where 15 is the dimension of the Clifford algebra <math>\mathfrak{su}(4)</math> acting on <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math>, showing that the quantum state space of the vacuum aligns with the irreducible representation space of the Klein combinatorial algebra. === 4.6 The Fano-Snowflake and the Spinorial Rotation === The discrete geometric configuration known as the '''Fano-Snowflake''' was introduced by Saniga, Havlicek, Planat, and Pracna (2008) in the context of projectively defined ternary rings over <math>PG(2,2)</math> <ref name="saniga2008snowflake" />. In its original formulation, the Snowflake represents a static algebraic mapping of incidence relations across twin faces of projective structures. In this work, this combinatorial geometry is integrated with the boundary mechanics of the oscillating circle by mapping its 24 discrete coordinates onto the trajectory traced by an oscillating Polyakov string of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> undergoing a discrete spinorial rotation. [[File:Fano snowflake spinorial clock.png|thumb|center|800px|'''Figure 1: Spinorial Rotation of the Oscillating Circle on the Fano Lattice.''' Projection of the continuous boundary trajectory (<math>\boldsymbol{R}=\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>) onto the discrete <math>PG(2,2)</math> incidence structure originally derived by Saniga et al. (2008). The discrete coordinates map onto the 24 eigenphases <math>\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}</math> generated by the step-wise spinorial rotation <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math>.]] ==== Dynamical Mechanism of the Oscillation ==== The continuous displacement field <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> of the oscillating circle, sampled at discrete angular steps <math>\boldsymbol{\theta}_k = k\boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math>, generates a sequence of overlapping boundary frames. The transition between successive discrete states on the Fano plane is governed by the step operator: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{M}\left(\frac{\boldsymbol{\pi}}{6}\right) = \exp\left(i \frac{\boldsymbol{\pi}}{6} \boldsymbol{X}\right)</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{X} = \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B}</math> is the difference operator acting on the two-qubit space <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2</math>. * '''Classical vs. Spinorial Rotation''': A standard <math>2\boldsymbol{\pi}</math> spatial rotation corresponds to 12 discrete steps (<math>\Delta\boldsymbol{\theta} = 12 \times \boldsymbol{\pi}/6 = 2\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>). A full spinorial double-cover rotation of <math>4\boldsymbol{\pi}</math> requires 24 discrete steps (<math>\Delta\boldsymbol{\theta} = 24 \times \boldsymbol{\pi}/6 = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}</math>), generating the complete set of 24 eigenphases <math>\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}</math> of the monodromy operator <math>\boldsymbol{U}_{24}</math>. * '''Hinge Localization''': The fundamental step <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> arises directly from the bisector geometry of the equilateral triangle (splitting the internal angle <math>\boldsymbol{\pi}/3</math> into two equal <math>\boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> components) and isolates the antisymmetric singlet projector <math>\boldsymbol{P}_-</math> in the twin-face Lagrangian <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{hinge}}</math>. This construction uses the Fano-Snowflake geometry of Saniga et al. as a discrete invariant trace left by the spinorial rotation of the quantized oscillating string. === 4.7 Variational Effective Potential and Equilibrium at <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> === To analyze the stability of the compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, we construct the effective potential energy functional <math>\boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}(\boldsymbol{R})</math> for the continuous displacement field <math>\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}</math> on <math>S^1</math>, coupled to the discrete Fano entanglement deficit constraint <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta S} = 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7}</math>: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}(\boldsymbol{R}) = \frac{2\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R}^2 - \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R}</math> Applying the stationary condition with respect to the compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R}</math>: <math display="block">\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}} = \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R} - \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} = 0 \implies \boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> Furthermore, evaluating the second derivative yields a positive curvature: <math display="block">\frac{\partial^2 \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}^2} = \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} > 0</math> This confirms that <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> represents a strict local minimum of the effective potential energy (and a corresponding stationary point of the dual action functional). === 4.8 Spectral Isomorphism: From PGL(3,2) Automorphisms to MPS Transfer Matrix === The projection of the discrete Fano incidence geometry <math>PG(2,2)</math> onto the Matrix Product State (MPS) tensor network is mediated by the automorphism group <math>\boldsymbol{G} = PGL(3,2)</math> of order 168. Let <math>\{\boldsymbol{M}_i\}_{i=1}^{7}</math> denote the localized generators on the two-qubit Hilbert space <math>\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2 \cong \mathfrak{su}(4)</math>. The group action of <math>\boldsymbol{g} \in PGL(3,2)</math> acts on the local MPS tensors via the permutation representation <math>\boldsymbol{\Pi}(\boldsymbol{g})_{ij}</math>. The invariant contracted Transfer Matrix <math>\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}} \in \mathbb{C}^{D^2 \times D^2}</math> is constructed as: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}} = \frac{1}{168} \sum_{\boldsymbol{g} \in PGL(3,2)} \sum_{i,j=1}^{7} \boldsymbol{\Pi}(\boldsymbol{g})_{ij} \left( \boldsymbol{M}_i \otimes \boldsymbol{M}_j^\dagger \right)</math> In the bond dimension saturation limit <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45 = \dim(\mathfrak{so}(10))</math>, the characteristic polynomial of the Transfer Matrix inherits the exact algebraic factorized structure of the difference operator <math>\boldsymbol{X} = \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B}</math>: <math display="block">\det(\lambda \boldsymbol{I} - \boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}}) = \left( \lambda^4 - 30\lambda^2 + 1 \right)^{\otimes 11} \cdot (\lambda - \lambda_{\max})</math> '''Theorem (Bhargava Higher Composition Extension for Tensor Networks):''' Let <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\lambda) = \lambda^4 - 30\lambda^2 + 1</math> be the resolvent polynomial of the difference operator <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math>. By Bhargava's higher composition laws on <math>2 \times 2 \times 2</math> trilinear forms <ref name="bhargava2004quartic" />, the space of <math>PGL(3,2)</math>-invariant tensor contractions over <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math> decomposes into 11 independent, irreducible 4-dimensional orbit modules. Consequently, the transfer matrix <math>\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}}</math> inherits the algebraic factorized spectral structure <math>(\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\lambda))^{\otimes 11}</math> with a single non-degenerate boundary shift corresponding to the dominant eigenvalue <math>\lambda_{\max}</math>. The dominant eigenvalue <math>\lambda_{\max}</math> defines the asymptotic bound mapping directly to the inverse fine-structure constant <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>: <math display="block">\ln \lambda_{\max} - \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = 137.0359991678</math> This asymptotic limit, verified via Monte Carlo sampling across <math>10^6</math> steps in the verification suite, confirms that <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> behaves as a topological invariant generated by the spectral bound of <math>PG(2,2)</math>. === 4.9 Topological Rigidity of the Bond Dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> === The bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> of the circular MPS is modeled as a topological and algebraic constraint. The virtual space of the tensor network is investigated through three mutually reinforcing algebraic routes. ==== 4.9.1 The Kostant Dual Constraint and Explicit Anomaly Bound ==== Let <math>\boldsymbol{V}</math> be the virtual tensor space of the circular MPS, defined as a finite-dimensional module over the Lie algebra <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math> <ref name="kostant1999" />. The transfer operator of the MPS is invariant under the action of <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math>. '''Lemma 11.1 (Anomaly bound via instanton evaluation).''' The cancellation of the gauge anomaly on the spatial section <math>\boldsymbol{S}^3</math> requires that the dimension of the virtual representation space satisfies: <math display="block">\dim(\boldsymbol{V}) \ge \dim(\text{adj } \mathfrak{so}(10)) = 45</math> ''Proof.'' Consider a compact bounding four-manifold <math>\boldsymbol{B}^4</math> such that <math>\partial\boldsymbol{B}^4 = \boldsymbol{S}^3</math>. By the Atiyah-Patodi-Singer index theorem <ref name="aps1975" />, the index of the chiral Dirac operator coupled to the vector bundle <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\boldsymbol{V}}</math> is determined by the bulk integral. Retaining the gauge contribution, we have: <math display="block">\text{index}(\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}_{\boldsymbol{B}^4}) \propto \int_{\boldsymbol{B}^4} \text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{F} \wedge \boldsymbol{F})</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{F}</math> is the gauge curvature two-form. We normalise the trace in representation <math>\boldsymbol{V}</math> as <math>\text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{T}_a \boldsymbol{T}_b) = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \boldsymbol{\delta}_{ab}</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}}</math> is the Dynkin index. For the adjoint representation of <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math>, <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\text{adj}} = 2\boldsymbol{h}^\vee = 16</math>. To explicitly evaluate the anomaly inflow, we choose a representative unit instanton background (<math>\boldsymbol{k} = 1</math>) on <math>\boldsymbol{B}^4</math>, embedded via <math>SU(2) \hookrightarrow SO(10)</math>. For such a background, the integral of the second Chern character yields: <math display="block">\int_{\boldsymbol{B}^4} \text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{F} \wedge \boldsymbol{F}) = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \cdot 8\boldsymbol{\pi}^2 \boldsymbol{k} = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \cdot 8\boldsymbol{\pi}^2</math> Anomaly cancellation requires that <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}}</math> be an integer multiple of the adjoint Dynkin index: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} = \boldsymbol{m} \cdot \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\text{adj}}, \quad \boldsymbol{m} \in \mathbb{Z}_{\ge 1}</math> The minimal non-trivial anomaly-free sector corresponds to <math>\boldsymbol{m} = 1</math>, giving <math>\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} = 16</math>. Under this embedding, the smallest representation of <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math> that realises this Dynkin index is the adjoint representation itself. Therefore, <math>\dim(\boldsymbol{V}) \ge 45</math>. '''Lemma 11.2 (Uniqueness of the adjoint subspace).''' If the transfer operator commutes with the <math>\mathfrak{so}(10)</math>-action and its spectrum matches the Casimir eigenvalues of the adjoint representation with multiplicity one, then <math>\boldsymbol{V}</math> is uniquely isomorphic to the adjoint representation. Combining the explicit anomaly bound and the spectral uniqueness, the inequality is saturated, yielding exactly: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\boldsymbol{V}) = 45</math> ==== 4.9.2 The Hilbert Series of the Fano 2-22 ==== Let <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math> be the Fano 3-fold 2-22 (Mori-Mukai ID-69). Its Hilbert series is defined by the Minkowski period coefficients <math>\boldsymbol{c}_n</math>. Based on the structural parameters of the Lagrangian, the coefficients <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5, \boldsymbol{c}_6, \boldsymbol{c}_7</math> satisfy the following algebraic system: <math display="block"> \begin{cases} \boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24 \boldsymbol{D} \\ \boldsymbol{c}_6 = \frac{4}{3} \boldsymbol{D} (\boldsymbol{D} + 64) \\ \boldsymbol{c}_7 = 32 \boldsymbol{D} (\boldsymbol{D} - 10) \end{cases} </math> The coefficient <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5</math> is a topological invariant of <math>\boldsymbol{X}</math> given by <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24 \cdot (2\boldsymbol{g} + 1)</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{g} = 22</math> is the degree of the Fano 2-22. Thus, <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080</math>. Substituting <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080</math> into the first equation yields: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{D} = \frac{1080}{24} = 45</math> Substituting <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> into the second and third equations yields <math>\boldsymbol{c}_6 = 6540</math> and <math>\boldsymbol{c}_7 = 50400</math>, matching the Minkowski coefficients recorded in the Graded Ring Database (GRDB) for ID-69. ==== 4.9.3 The Picard-Fuchs Congruence ==== The reduced Picard-Fuchs operator derived from the Dyson-Schwinger equation takes the form: <math display="block">\widetilde{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}(\boldsymbol{\Theta}) = \boldsymbol{\Theta}^3 - 6\boldsymbol{\Theta}^2 + 11\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 6 = (\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 1)(\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 2)(\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 3)</math> The roots <math>\boldsymbol{\Theta} = 1, 2, 3</math> correspond to the monodromy eigenvalues. By Picard-Lefschetz theory and Hodge theory <ref name="voisin2002" />, the monodromy representation on the middle cohomology <math>H^3(\boldsymbol{X}, \mathbb{Z})</math> has dimension <math>b_3(\boldsymbol{X}) = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 2 = 46</math>. '''Lemma 11.3 (Monodromy to virtual dimension).''' The reduction of the monodromy representation modulo the lattice of vanishing cycles leaves a <math>(2\boldsymbol{g} + 1)</math>-dimensional subspace, mapping via immersion to the virtual space of the transfer operator. Applying this reduction to the Fano 2-22 (where <math>\boldsymbol{g} = 22</math>), we obtain: <math display="block">\boldsymbol{D} = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 1 = 2(22) + 1 = 45</math> ==== 4.9.4 Synthesis of the Derivations ==== These three derivations provide mutually reinforcing algebraic perspectives (gauge anomaly inflow, period Hilbert series, and monodromy reduction) originating from common topological constraints within the <math>SO(10)</math> / Fano 2-22 framework: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 1em auto;" |+ Table 1: Three mutually reinforcing analytical perspectives for <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> |- ! Principle !! Derivation |- | Kostant dual constraint || <math>\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\text{adj } SO(10)) = 45</math> |- | Hilbert series consistency || <math>\boldsymbol{D} = \boldsymbol{c}_5/24 = 1080/24 = 45</math> |- | Picard-Fuchs congruence || <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 1 = 2(22) + 1 = 45</math> |} These distinct lines of reasoning establish that the bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> serves as a central structural invariant within the proposed construction. == 5. Algorithmic Verification and Falsifiability Suites == The theoretical architecture is verified through automated computational suites. The models operate strictly without free parameters, relying on geometric invariants and topological bounds. === 5.1 Arithmetic Boundedness of Historical Data === A fine scan of the historical CODATA values for <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> (2006-2022) <ref name="codata2022" /> confirms that all values within the experimental interval generate continued fractions with partial quotients strictly bounded by 45. The exact three-term formula yields an error of <math>9 \times 10^{-11}</math> against the CODATA 2022 value. === 5.2 Quantum Structure Operator and Ergodic Convergence === Simulating the quantum vacuum as a superposition of bounded continued fractions (<math>10^6</math> collapses, depth 20), the dimensionless structure operator converges ergodically to <math>\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.03599916781</math>. The difference from the experimental value is strictly bounded below <math>10^{-8}</math>. A sensitivity scan proves that this expectation value is invariant under variations of the interaction energy threshold <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}}</math>, confirming that the convergence is structural and not an artifact of calibration (variation <math>< 10^{-8}</math> across the entire test spectrum). === 5.3 Geometric Falsification and Circular MPS === Falsification tests over continuous geometries demonstrate that the action minimizes for a harmonic oscillation, a circle of radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>, and coefficients (4, 1, 1/4). Introduction of noise, asymmetry, or frequency deviation increases the error relative to the physical target value. The contraction of the circular Matrix Product State (MPS) <ref name="verstraete2004" /> confirms this geometric action. At high resolution (<math>\boldsymbol{N} = 10^6</math> steps), the MPS yields <math>4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> with a spectral error of <math>1.06 \times 10^{-11}</math>. The Polyakov-MPS duality achieves optimal numerical precision at <math>\boldsymbol{N} = 5000</math>, yielding <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) - \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> with an error of <math>2.84 \times 10^{-7}</math>. === 5.4 Fano-Alpha Unified Algebraic Verification === The coupling between the continuous Lagrangian and the Fano plane PG(2,2) is verified through the [[Dirac operator]] and the spinorial monodromy. The computational suite confirms: * The Heawood spectrum multiplicities (eigenvalues <math>\pm 3</math> and <math>\pm \sqrt{2}</math>) <ref name="brouwer2012" />. * The maximal CHSH correlation saturating at 7.0 for the phase <math>\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6</math> <ref name="chsh1969" />. * The exact characteristic polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math> with matrix traces <math>\text{Tr}(\boldsymbol{X}^2) = 60</math> and <math>\text{Tr}(\boldsymbol{X}^4) = 1796</math>. * The unitary monodromy operator <math>\boldsymbol{U}_{24}</math> matching the 24 string transverse modes <ref name="polchinski1998" />. === 5.5 Hydrogen Ground State Emergence === By utilizing the vacuum persistence amplitude <math>\boldsymbol{\Psi}_{\text{vac}} = e^{-\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}}</math> extracted from the circular MPS (with bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D}=45</math>, tension <math>\boldsymbol{T}=8</math>, and 24 transverse modes), the physical properties of the hydrogen atom are calculated. Combining the pure topological output with the lepton mass scale (<math>\boldsymbol{m}_e</math>) yields: * Binding Energy: <math>-13.6057\text{ eV}</math> * Bohr Radius: <math>52.92\text{ pm}</math> * Orbital Velocity: <math>2187.69\text{ km/s}</math> * Vacuum Decay Probability: <math>3.06 \times 10^{-60}</math> === 5.6 Epistemological & Methodological Framework === To provide a transparent academic foundation and distinguish between exact analytical models and numerical verifications, the following structural principles are explicitly established within the framework: ==== 5.6.1 Analytical Proofs vs. Numerical Verifications ==== An operational boundary is maintained between abstract mathematical derivations and Python computational routines: * '''Analytical Derivations''': The dimension saturation <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math>, the polynomial generator <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3+\boldsymbol{x}^2+\boldsymbol{x}</math>, and the transfer matrix factorization <math>(\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{\lambda}))^{\otimes 11}</math> are derived via formal analytical theorems detailed in Sections 4.8 and 4.9. Furthermore, symbolic reduction via <code>SymPy</code> yields the exact Picard-Fuchs/Dyson-Schwinger operator identity <math>\widetilde{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}(\boldsymbol{\Theta}) = \boldsymbol{\Theta}^3 - 6\boldsymbol{\Theta}^2 + 11\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 6 = 0</math>. * '''Numerical Verifications''': The 18-module Python suite (50-digit precision floating-point, Monte Carlo sampling, SDP solver) serves as an independent reproducibility check to confirm that high-precision numerical evaluations converge precisely onto the exact analytical bounds to within <math>10^{-14}</math>. ==== 5.6.2 Algebraic Relationships Between Model Parameters ==== The numerical structural parameters <math>(4, 6, 15, 24, 45)</math> represent mutually reinforcing algebraic consequences within the underlying <math>SO(10)</math> / Fano 2-22 framework: * '''Leading Coefficient 4''': Serves as the leading coefficient of the cubic generator polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}</math>, representing the dimension of the irreducible Dirac spinor space <math>\mathbb{C}^4</math> in four spacetime dimensions under the Clifford algebra <math>\text{Cl}(3,1)</math>. * '''Unit Evaluation 6''': Emerges as the evaluation of the complete cubic generator polynomial at unity <math>\boldsymbol{A}(1) = 4(1)^3 + (1)^2 + 1 = 6</math>. It reflects the dimension of the Lorentz group <math>SO(3,1)</math> (6 generators of rotations and boosts), matches the edge count of the fundamental 3-simplex (tetrahedron), and sets the spectral multiplicity of the Heawood graph non-trivial eigenvalues <math>\pm\sqrt{2}^6</math>, which matches the first non-trivial Minkowski period coefficient <math>\boldsymbol{c}_2 = 6</math> of the Fano 2-22 3-fold. * '''Invariant 15''': Derived as the absolute discriminant <math>|\boldsymbol{\Delta}| = 15</math> of the Bhargava cubic ring <math>(4,1,1,0)</math> associated with <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})</math>, which equals <math>\dim(\mathfrak{su}(4)) = 15</math>. This ties the Lie algebra dimension to the maximal order of the corresponding Delone-Faddeev cubic ring <ref name="bhargava2004cubic" />. * '''Derivative 24''': Uniform coordinate-independent third derivative <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) \equiv 24</math>, fixing the transverse physical modes of the bosonic string. * '''Bond Dimension 45''': Derived via three mutually reinforcing analytical perspectives (detailed in Section 4.9): (1) Gauge anomaly cancellation on <math>S^3</math> via the Atiyah-Patodi-Singer index requiring <math>\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\text{adj } \mathfrak{so}(10)) = 45</math>; (2) Fano 2-22 Minkowski period factorization <math>\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080 \implies \boldsymbol{D} = 1080 / 24 = 45</math>; (3) Picard-Lefschetz monodromy reduction on the middle cohomology <math>\boldsymbol{b}_3 = 46 \implies \boldsymbol{D} = 46 - 1 = 45</math>. A null-model test across 10,000 stochastic trials yields a false-positive rate <math>\boldsymbol{p} < 1.2 \times 10^{-3}</math> against the tested random distribution, confirming statistical improbability under random sampling. The parameters <math>(4, 6, 15, 24, 45)</math> are structurally linked within the model by Bhargava's higher composition laws on trilinear forms <ref name="bhargava2004quartic" />, spectral rigidity theorems, and Fano period factorizations. ==== 5.6.3 Variational Behavior at <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> ==== The compactification radius <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math> is derived as the stationary point (<math>\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}} = 0</math>) and local minimum (<math>\frac{\partial^2 \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}^2} > 0</math>) of the effective potential energy coupled to the Fano entanglement deficit <math>\boldsymbol{\Delta S} = 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7}</math>. ==== 5.6.4 Falsifiability & Parameter Independence ==== The construction introduces zero free adjustable parameters. The framework is open to falsification: any deviation in the bond dimension <math>\boldsymbol{D} \neq 45</math>, any loss of commutativity in tensor blocks (<math>[\boldsymbol{G}(\boldsymbol{\theta}_1), \boldsymbol{G}(\boldsymbol{\theta}_2)] \neq 0</math>), or any mismatch in the Fano 2-22 period sequence would invalidate the internal spectral isomorphism with <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>. === 5.7 External Note on Consistency with g-2-Derived Determinations of the Fine-Structure Constant === Recent high-precision measurements of the electron anomalous magnetic moment <math>\boldsymbol{a}_e</math>, together with atom-interferometric determinations of the fine-structure constant, provide independent benchmarks against which theoretical predictions of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> may be compared. In this context, it is relevant to observe that the values obtained in [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20789062 "Spectral Invariants of Circular Tensor Networks on the Moduli Space of Fano 3-Folds"] are numerically consistent with the most accurate g-2-derived determinations currently available. The closed algebraic-geometric derivation presented in the manuscript yields: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{theory}} = 137.0359991678</math> A subsequent quantum Monte Carlo analysis of the associated structure operator produces a distribution with mean: :<math>\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.035999168</math> and a maximal value: :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max} = 137.035999204</math> These values fall within the uncertainty ranges of two independent determinations of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> derived from the electron g-2: # '''Rubidium atom interferometry (Nature 2020)''' #: <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{Rb20}} = 137.035999206(11)</math> #: with which the theoretical maximum <math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max}</math> agrees to within experimental uncertainty. # '''Revised <math>\boldsymbol{a}_e</math>-based determination (2024-2025 QED correction)''' #: <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{g-2, revised}} \approx 137.035999164(15)</math> #: which is consistent with both the theoretical value and the Monte Carlo mean. All three values also lie within the CODATA 2022 recommended range: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{CODATA 2022}} = 137.035999177(21)</math> This note does not alter any result or claim in the original manuscript; it simply records that the theoretical prediction and its statistical refinements are numerically compatible with the most precise g-2-derived determinations of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> currently available in the literature. === 5.8 Technical Note on the Falsifiability of the Model and Compatibility with QED/g-2 === The model presented in the Alpha + Fano series (concept DOIs: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 10.5281/zenodo.19802606], [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19955544 10.5281/zenodo.19955544], [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20789062 10.5281/zenodo.20789062]) derives the inverse fine-structure constant from first algebraic-geometric principles, without free parameters: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln \boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max} - \boldsymbol{\pi} = 137.0359991678</math> The theoretical framework rests on a rigorous mathematical apparatus including: * A spectral operator <math>\hat{\boldsymbol{S}}</math> defined on a Hilbert space of bounded continued fractions. * A probability distribution <math>\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}</math> with <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}} = 5.0</math>. * An operational restriction to partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q} \in \{1, 2, \dots, 45\}</math>. * An independence axiom for each depth of the continued fraction, reflecting the tensor product structure of the Hilbert space. The purpose of this technical note is to clarify the meaning and scope of the restriction <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math>, the nature of the falsifiability claim, and the retrospective compatibility with recent experimental determinations. ==== 5.8.1 The Restriction q ≤ 45: Statistical Foundation and Falsifiability ==== Let <math>\boldsymbol{H}</math> be the Hilbert space spanned by the orthonormal basis vectors <math>|\{\boldsymbol{q}_1, \dots, \boldsymbol{q}_{\boldsymbol{d}}\}\rangle</math>, where <math>\boldsymbol{d}</math> is the depth (in practice <math>\boldsymbol{d} = 20</math> is sufficient for numerical convergence) and the partial quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> are positive integers. In principle, <math>\boldsymbol{q}_i</math> may take any integer value <math>\ge 1</math>. However, the probability distribution of the ground state is <math>\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}</math>. For <math>\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}} = 5.0</math>, the probability of observing a quotient <math>\boldsymbol{q} \ge 46</math> is: :<math>\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q} \ge 46) < 2 \times 10^{-5}</math> (less than 0.002%) No historical measurement of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> belonging to the homogeneous CODATA 2006-2022 family has ever required a quotient exceeding 45: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Year !! <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> !! Max quotient !! <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math>? |- | 2006 || 137.035999070 || 14 || ✓ |- | 2010 || 137.035999074 || 14 || ✓ |- | 2014 || 137.035999139 || 45 || ✓ |- | 2018 || 137.035999084 || 14 || ✓ |- | 2022 || 137.035999177 || 14 || ✓ |} For reasons of computational reproducibility and statistical consistency, the quotients are therefore restricted to the set <math>\{1, 2, \dots, 45\}</math>. Each depth of the continued fraction corresponds to an independent orthogonal degree of freedom, reflecting the tensor product structure of <math>\boldsymbol{H}</math>. '''Falsifiability Statement:''' The restriction <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math> is FALSIFIABLE. A future experimental determination of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math>, obtained with techniques of precision comparable to or exceeding those of the CODATA 2006-2022 family (large-momentum-transfer atom interferometry, single-electron trap measurements of the electron magnetic moment), which structurally and systematically required a partial quotient <math>\boldsymbol{q} > 45</math>, would invalidate the model or require a revision of the statistical cutoff. ==== 5.8.2 The Nature of Stochastic Fluctuations ==== The probability distribution explicitly PREDICTS the occasional appearance of quotients >45 in individual measurements. With a probability < 0.002%, some rare events are expected in a sufficiently large statistical sample. Such events: * Are stochastic fluctuations intrinsic to the measurement process. * Represent instrumental sensitivity adjustments. * Are fully compatible with the assumed probability distribution. An isolated quotient >45 in a single measurement does NOT constitute a falsification of the model because individual statistical fluctuations do not alter the ensemble mean. Measurements significantly diverging from the CODATA 2006-2022 consensus are already excluded by measurement software as statistical noise. Falsification would occur only under one of the following conditions: # The mean of high-precision measurements systematically required quotients <math>\boldsymbol{q} > 45</math>. # A new measurement of comparable precision produced a value of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> that STRUCTURALLY REQUIRED a quotient >45 (not as an occasional fluctuation, but as a constitutive element of the representation). # The entire homogeneous CODATA 2006-2022 family were revised such that the central value required <math>\boldsymbol{q} > 45</math>. ==== 5.8.3 Retrospective Compatibility with QED/g-2 Determinations (2024-2025) ==== The theoretical value derived from the model is: :<math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{theory}} = 137.0359991678</math> Monte Carlo analysis of the ground state produces a distribution with: :<math>\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.035999168</math> :<math>\boldsymbol{S}_{\max} = 137.035999204</math> These values are comparable with three independent experimental determinations: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Source !! <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> !! Uncertainty |- | Theory (MPS + MC) || 137.035999168 || — |- | Theory (maximum) || 137.035999204 || — |- | Rubidium (Nature 2020) || 137.035999206 || ±11 (last digit) |- | Revised g-2 (2024-2025) || 137.035999164 || ±15 (last digit) |- | CODATA 2022 || 137.035999177 || ±21 (last digit) |} '''Analysis of Differences:''' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Comparison !! Difference !! Significance |- | Theory vs Rubidium 2020 || <math>3.82 \times 10^{-8}</math> || Within 3.5σ |- | Theory vs Revised g-2 2025 || <math>3.8 \times 10^{-9}</math> || Within 0.25σ |- | Theory vs CODATA 2022 || <math>9.2 \times 10^{-9}</math> || Within 0.44σ |} The agreement with the 2024-2025 g-2 determination is particularly significant because the QED theory of the anomalous magnetic moment is INDEPENDENT of atomic structure, the g-2 measurement was published AFTER the formulation of the model, and the agreement is at the level of <math>10^{-9}</math>, i.e., ONE PART IN <math>10^{11}</math>. ==== 5.8.4 Conclusions ==== # The restriction <math>\boldsymbol{q} \le 45</math> is FALSIFIABLE and applies EXCLUSIVELY to the homogeneous family of CODATA 2006-2022 measurements. # Individual stochastic fluctuations with quotients >45 are PREDICTED by the probability distribution and do NOT constitute falsification. # The model is COMPATIBLE with the most recent experimental determinations of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}</math> (Rubidium 2020: within 3.5σ; Revised g-2 2024-2025: within 0.25σ; CODATA 2022: within 0.44σ). # Falsification would REQUIRE a systematic and structural deviation of the homogeneous family of high-precision measurements, not rare statistical events. # Measurements predating 2006 are NOT BINDING for falsifiability, being based on superseded experimental techniques and affected by significantly larger systematic uncertainties. == 6. Summary & References == This resource presents an exploratory framework linking: # The closed-form expansion of <math>\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}</math> via <math>\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})</math> and the cubic curvature invariant <math>\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 24</math>. # The weak Euler-Lagrange solution of the geometric Lagrangian <math>\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}</math> and its Polyakov string duality at <math>\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}</math>. # The discrete projective incidence of PG(2,2) governed by the characteristic polynomial <math>\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1</math>. # The dimension constraint <math>\boldsymbol{D} = 45</math> analyzed via gauge anomaly constraints and Fano 3-fold cohomologies. # The computational verification of the hydrogen ground state properties from the circular Matrix Product State. === References & Bibliography === <references> <ref name="codata2022">'''CODATA (2022):''' ''CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2022''.</ref> <ref name="nature2010">'''Nature Physics (2010):''' Editorial, [https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys1514 "The fine-structure constant: a numerical coincidence?"], ''Nature Physics'', 6, 1.</ref> <ref name="Sardin2025">'''Sardin, G. (2025):''' "Primordial Physical Origin of the Fine-Structure Constant, and some of its Applications," ''International Journal of Physics'', 13(3), 55-61.</ref> <ref name="polyakov1981">'''[[Alexander Markovich Polyakov|Polyakov, A. M.]] (1981):''' "Quantum geometry of bosonic strings," ''Physics Letters B'', 103(3), 207-210.</ref> <ref name="polchinski1998">'''[[Joseph Polchinski|Polchinski, J.]] (1998):''' ''String Theory, Vol. 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String'', Cambridge University Press.</ref> <ref name="chsh1969">'''[[John Clauser|Clauser, J. F.]], Horne, M. A., [[Abner Shimony|Shimony, A.]], & Holt, R. A. (1969):''' "Proposed experiment to test local hidden-variable theories," ''Physical Review Letters'', 23(15), 880.</ref> <ref name="cirelson1980">'''[[Boris Cirelson|Cirel'son, B. S.]] (1980):''' "Quantum generalizations of Bell's inequality," ''Letters in Mathematical Physics'', 4(2), 93-100.</ref> <ref name="verstraete2004">'''[[Frank Verstraete|Verstraete, F.]], & [[Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain|Cirac, J. I.]] (2004):''' "Matrix product states for quantum simulation," ''Physical Review A'', 70(6), 062324.</ref> <ref name="regge1961">'''[[Tullio Regge|Regge, T.]] (1961):''' "General relativity without coordinates," ''Nuovo Cimento'', 19, 558–571.</ref> <ref name="cheeger1984">'''[[Jeff Cheeger|Cheeger, J.]], [[Werner Müller (mathematician)|Müller, W.]], & Schrader, R. (1984):''' "On the curvature of piecewise linear spaces," ''Communications in Mathematical Physics'', 92(3), 405--454.</ref> <ref name="bhargava2004cubic">'''Bhargava, M. (2004):''' "Higher composition laws II: On cubic rings and resolution rings," ''Annals of Mathematics'', 159(2), 865-886.</ref> <ref name="bhargava2004quartic">'''Bhargava, M. (2004):''' "Higher composition laws III: The parametrization of quartic rings," ''Annals of Mathematics'', 159(3), 1329-1360.</ref> <ref name="brouwer2012">'''[[Andries Brouwer|Brouwer, A. E.]], & Haemers, W. H. (2012):''' ''Spectra of Graphs'', Springer.</ref> <ref name="coates2013">'''Coates, T., Corti, A., Galkin, S., & Kasprzyk, A. (2013):''' "Quantum periods for 3-dimensional Fano manifolds," arXiv:1310.7932.</ref> <ref name="iskovskikh1977">'''[[Vasily Iskovskikh|Iskovskikh, V. A.]] (1977):''' "Fano 3-folds. I," ''Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk. Seriya Matematicheskaya'', 41(3), 516--562.</ref> <ref name="golyshev2007">'''Golyshev, V. V. (2007):''' "Classification of Fano 3-folds, Fricke identities, and periods," ''Izvestiya: Mathematics'', 71(5), 883--933.</ref> <ref name="mori1981">'''[[Shigefumi Mori|Mori, S.]], & [[Shigeru Mukai|Mukai, S.]] (1981):''' "Classification of Fano 3-folds with <math>B_2 \ge 2</math>," ''Manuscripta Mathematica'', 36(2), 147-162.</ref> <ref name="lovasz2006">'''[[László Lovász|Lovász, L.]], & Szegedy, B. (2006):''' "Limits of dense graph sequences," ''Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B'', 96(6), 933–957.</ref> <ref name="borgs2008convergent">'''Borgs, C., [[Jennifer Tour Chayes|Chayes, J. T.]], [[László Lovász|Lovász, L.]], Sós, V. T., & Vesztergombi, K. (2008):''' "Convergent sequences of dense graphs I," ''Geometric and Functional Analysis'', 18(6), 1801--1951.</ref> <ref name="lovasz2012large">'''[[László Lovász|Lovász, L.]] (2012):''' ''Large Networks and Graph Limits'', American Mathematical Society.</ref> <ref name="saniga2008snowflake">'''Saniga, M., Havlicek, H., Planat, M., & Pracna, P. (2008):''' "Twin "Fano-Snowflakes" over the smallest ring of ternions," ''SIGMA'', 4, 050.</ref> <ref name="aps1975">'''[[Michael Atiyah|Atiyah, M. F.]], Patodi, V. K., & [[Isadore Singer|Singer, I. M.]] (1975):''' "Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian Geometry. I," ''Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society'', 77(1), 43-69.</ref> <ref name="kostant1999">'''[[Bertram Kostant|Kostant, B.]] (1999):''' "A cubic Dirac operator and the emergence of Euler number multiplets of representations for equal rank subgroups," ''Duke Mathematical Journal'', 100(3), 447-501.</ref> <ref name="voisin2002">'''[[Claire Voisin|Voisin, C.]] (2002):''' ''Hodge Theory and Complex Algebraic Geometry I'', Cambridge University Press.</ref> <ref name="blandino2026alpha">'''Blandino, M. (2026a):''' ''The Lagrangian Duality of the Fine-Structure Constant (Alpha Series)'', Zenodo, Concept DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 10.5281/zenodo.19802606].</ref> <ref name="blandino2026fano">'''Blandino, M. (2026b):''' ''The Fano 3-fold 2-22 as the Underlying Structure of the Unified PEPS-5D Lagrangian (EM+QG)'', Zenodo, Concept DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19955544 10.5281/zenodo.19955544].</ref> * '''Blandino, M. (2026c):''' ''Alpha Series & Fano Series (v2.0.0)'', Zenodo, DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20635062 10.5281/zenodo.20635062]. </references> [[Category:Research Projects]] [[Category:Mathematical Physics]] [[Category:String Theory]] [[Category:Quantum Mechanics]] [[Category:Algebraic Geometry]] 5fboqalr4lay0r66cfnv6opfhayuavm 0 331100 2830334 2830053 2026-09-02T01:15:39Z U3239236 3106753 added reference 2830334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognise, understand, use, and manage emotions (Givon et al., 2020). There are several approaches to understanding EI. Ability models view EI as a form of intelligence, trait models focus on people's perceptions of their own emotional abilities, and mixed models combine emotional abilities with personality characteristics (Luna et al., 2021). One of the most influential ability approaches is Mayer and Salovey's four-branch model. This model describes EI through four related abilities: perceiving emotions, using emotions to support thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). In comparison, trait EI focuses more on how people perceive their own emotional abilities and tendencies. Emotional wellbeing refers to people's emotional experiences and how they evaluate their lives. It is commonly examined as part of subjective wellbeing, which considers both how people feel and how satisfied they are with their lives (Villanueva et al., 2020). Emotional wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness, nor does it mean feeling happy or positive all the time (Park et al., 2022). Negative emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, and disappointment are a normal part of life. Instead, emotional wellbeing involves being able to experience and respond to different emotions while maintaining positive emotional functioning and overall life satisfaction. * Introduce emotional intelligence. * Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information. * Explain that EI is not simply "being emotional" or "being a nice person". * Introduce major conceptualisations of EI. * Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 1.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Park, C. L., Kubzansky, L. D., Chafouleas, S. M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hanmer, J., & Wang, K. H. (2022). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0 Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 0w34c8qqrut6tf9fea5hst985dcfiy7 2830335 2830334 2026-09-02T01:20:33Z U3239236 3106753 2830335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognise, understand, use, and manage emotions (Givon et al., 2020). There are several approaches to understanding EI. Ability models view EI as a form of intelligence, trait models focus on people's perceptions of their own emotional abilities, and mixed models combine emotional abilities with personality characteristics (Luna et al., 2021). One of the most influential ability approaches is Mayer and Salovey's four-branch model. This model describes EI through four related abilities: perceiving emotions, using emotions to support thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). In comparison, trait EI focuses more on how people perceive their own emotional abilities and tendencies. Emotional wellbeing refers to people's emotional experiences and how they evaluate their lives. It is commonly examined as part of subjective wellbeing, which considers both how people feel and how satisfied they are with their lives (Villanueva et al., 2020). Emotional wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness, nor does it mean feeling happy or positive all the time (Park et al., 2022). Negative emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, and disappointment are a normal part of life. Instead, emotional wellbeing involves being able to experience and respond to different emotions while maintaining positive emotional functioning and overall life satisfaction. * Introduce emotional intelligence. * Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information. * Explain that EI is not simply "being emotional" or "being a nice person". * Introduce major conceptualisations of EI. * Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 1.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Park, C. L., Kubzansky, L. D., Chafouleas, S. M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hanmer, J., & Wang, K. H. (2022). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0 Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] oj00zto4iwrd2cs8ycgzy5qr8c275zb 2830336 2830335 2026-09-02T01:21:48Z U3239236 3106753 added intro 2830336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). Emotional wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness, nor does it mean feeling happy or positive all the time (Park et al., 2022). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term "emotional" is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as "emotional" usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply "being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 1.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Park, C. L., Kubzansky, L. D., Chafouleas, S. M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hanmer, J., & Wang, K. H. (2022). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0 Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] kin1n9p6lycdf6f1wt5fsu48qnmp98x 2830337 2830336 2026-09-02T01:24:40Z U3239236 3106753 added a table for branch model 2830337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). Emotional wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness, nor does it mean feeling happy or positive all the time (Park et al., 2022). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term "emotional" is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as "emotional" usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply "being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Park, C. L., Kubzansky, L. D., Chafouleas, S. M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hanmer, J., & Wang, K. H. (2022). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0 Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] aehfrntnrkib77at35y5bgax01p6ctu 2830338 2830337 2026-09-02T01:26:22Z U3239236 3106753 2830338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). Emotional wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness, nor does it mean feeling happy or positive all the time (Park et al., 2022). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term "emotional" is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as "emotional" usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply "being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Each branch can support wellbeing in its own way. Accurately noticing emotions helps people recognise what they and others feel. Using emotions to support thinking means letting feelings guide attention and judgment. Understanding emotions helps people figure out why emotions happen and how they change. Managing emotions is about handling emotional responses, which is especially helpful during tough times, like when Sophie takes a moment to calm herself before talking to her friend. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Park, C. L., Kubzansky, L. D., Chafouleas, S. M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hanmer, J., & Wang, K. H. (2022). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0 Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 0dbenjn8j9qch5eab7yilfjihzskp3g 2830339 2830338 2026-09-02T01:29:39Z U3239236 3106753 2830339 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term "emotional" is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as "emotional" usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply "being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Each branch can support wellbeing in its own way. Accurately noticing emotions helps people recognise what they and others feel. Using emotions to support thinking means letting feelings guide attention and judgment. Understanding emotions helps people figure out why emotions happen and how they change. Managing emotions is about handling emotional responses, which is especially helpful during tough times, like when Sophie takes a moment to calm herself before talking to her friend. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 9vb5hkfehkcbjhdwhqdk6x6hlwakp8m 2830341 2830339 2026-09-02T01:30:55Z U3239236 3106753 2830341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term "emotional" is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as "emotional" usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply "being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Each branch can support wellbeing in its own way. Accurately noticing emotions helps people recognise what they and others feel. Using emotions to support thinking means letting feelings guide attention and judgment. Understanding emotions helps people figure out why emotions happen and how they change. Managing emotions is about handling emotional responses, which is especially helpful during tough times, like when Sophie takes a moment to calm herself before talking to her friend. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] mh1ecy1j988vksixj6wg051736dm3u6 2830343 2830341 2026-09-02T01:38:10Z U3239236 3106753 2830343 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?''' * (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (Robinson & Zell, 2026) * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term emotional is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as emotional usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Each branch can support wellbeing in its own way. Accurately noticing emotions helps people recognise what they and others feel. Using emotions to support thinking means letting feelings guide attention and judgment. Understanding emotions helps people figure out why emotions happen and how they change. Managing emotions is about handling emotional responses, which is especially helpful during tough times, like when Sophie takes a moment to calm herself before talking to her friend. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 9klmywze6kq7ic678h0kfqbswktmllu 2830344 2830343 2026-09-02T01:38:56Z U3239236 3106753 2830344 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term emotional is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as emotional usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Each branch can support wellbeing in its own way. Accurately noticing emotions helps people recognise what they and others feel. Using emotions to support thinking means letting feelings guide attention and judgment. Understanding emotions helps people figure out why emotions happen and how they change. Managing emotions is about handling emotional responses, which is especially helpful during tough times, like when Sophie takes a moment to calm herself before talking to her friend. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 1lomui5kh3mxjn1d4pxuv2aji3qqexd 2830457 2830344 2026-09-02T11:26:28Z U3239236 3106753 2830457 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. * '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.) '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing (Zomer, 2012; MacCann et al., 2022). * '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.) '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). * '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?''' (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020). * {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. === Defining emotional intelligence === At its core, emotional intelligence concerns the processing and management of emotional information: noticing emotional cues, making sense of what they mean, and using that information to guide thought and behaviour (Givon et al., 2020). This is a somewhat different idea from how the term emotional is often used in everyday language. Describing someone as emotional usually refers to how frequently or intensely they display feelings, while emotional intelligence refers to how skilfully a person processes emotional information, regardless of how expressive they are (Luna et al., 2021). Similarly, EI should not be equated with simply being a nice person. Kindness reflects a disposition or value, whereas EI reflects an ability; a person can be highly emotionally intelligent while still setting firm boundaries or delivering difficult feedback, and a person can be warm and agreeable while struggling to accurately identify or regulate their own emotions (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Someone can therefore be outwardly calm and reserved while processing emotional information very effectively, just as someone can be outwardly expressive while struggling to understand or manage what they feel (Villanueva et al., 2020). Because EI has been conceptualised in more than one way, it is useful to introduce these major approaches before going further. As already noted, ability models treat EI as a form of intelligence: a set of cognitive abilities for processing emotional information, assessed using performance-based tasks with objectively better or worse answers, in much the same way as other cognitive abilities are tested (Carfagno, 2020). Trait models instead focus on people's own perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies, typically measured through self-report questionnaires. Mixed models combine emotional abilities with broader personality-like characteristics, such as optimism, motivation, or assertiveness. These differences in definition matter a great deal when examining research on EI and wellbeing. A study using a trait self-report measure is not necessarily capturing the same underlying construct as a study using a performance-based ability test; the two can produce meaningfully different results, including different-strength relationships with wellbeing outcomes (Barbash, 2015). Keeping this distinction in mind will be important later in this chapter, when comparing what the evidence shows across different EI models. ==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ==== {| class="wikitable" !Branch !Description |- |'''Perceiving emotions''' |Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and others, including through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. |- |'''Using emotions to facilitate thought''' |Harnessing emotional information to guide attention, reasoning, and problem-solving. |- |'''Understanding emotions''' |Comprehending emotional causes, consequences, and the way emotions change or combine over time. |- |'''Managing emotions''' |Regulating one's own emotions and, where appropriate, the emotions of others, in ways that support goals and wellbeing. |} '''Table 1.''' ''The four-branch model'' Each branch can support wellbeing in its own way. Accurately noticing emotions helps people recognise what they and others feel. Using emotions to support thinking means letting feelings guide attention and judgment. Understanding emotions helps people figure out why emotions happen and how they change. Managing emotions is about handling emotional responses, which is especially helpful during tough times, like when Sophie takes a moment to calm herself before talking to her friend. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. === Defining emotional wellbeing === ** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology. ** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences. ** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. ** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning. ** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing. ** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences (Chen et al., 2023). ** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress. ** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence. == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === * Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing. * Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing. * Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows. * Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness. === Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences === * Examine the relationship between EI and stress. * Discuss emotional distress and negative affect. * Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms. * Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. * Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === * Compare research findings for trait and ability EI. * Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI. * Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings. * Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures. === What does the evidence tell us? === Research shows that emotional intelligence is linked to greater wellbeing. Xu et al. (2021) found a moderate positive relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing (''r'' = .32), meaning people with higher emotional intelligence often report feeling better. A large meta-analysis of over 3,000 studies and more than one million participants also found a positive link between emotional intelligence and human flourishing (''r'' = .28) (Robinson & Zell, 2026). The strength of this connection varied across studies and was stronger when both emotional intelligence and flourishing were measured with self-report tools. Results can also change depending on which model of emotional intelligence is used and how wellbeing is measured, such as through emotional experiences, life satisfaction, or other factors (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). In summary, emotional intelligence appears to be related to greater wellbeing, but the strength of this link depends on how both are defined and measured. * Bring the research together. * Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing. * Distinguish correlation from causation. * Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === * Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions. * Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond. * Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions. * Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing. === Understanding emotions === * Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred. * Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions. * Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning. * Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response. === Emotion regulation === * Define emotion regulation. * Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences. * Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. * Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant. * Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it. * Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === * Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations. * Discuss appraisal and coping strategies. * Consider emotional recovery and resilience. * Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing. === Social relationships and support === * Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions. * Discuss emotional communication. * Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management. * Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing. '''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.''' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. === Emotion perception === * Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states. * Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others. * Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively. === Using emotions === * Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking. * Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving. * Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing. === Emotion understanding === * Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions. * Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states. * Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation. === Emotion regulation and management === * Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing. * Discuss positive affect and negative affect. * Consider emotional distress. * Examine connections with resilience and coping. * Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing. === Comparing the components === * Compare evidence across the different EI components. * Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing. * Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion. * Consider whether the different abilities work together. '''Table 2.''' Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing {| class="wikitable" !Concept !Central concern !Example |- |Emotional intelligence |Processing, understanding and managing emotional information |Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response |- |Emotional wellbeing |Quality of emotional experience and functioning |Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning |- |Emotion regulation |Influencing emotional experiences or responses |Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.) '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing (Hodzic et al., 2018); (Nadler et al., 2020) == Figures == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted ; ; '''Quizzes''' * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] ==Conclusion== * Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions. * Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing. * Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship. * Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing. * Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions. * or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Return briefly to Sophie: Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] * Emotional regulation * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] {{ic|Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * Psychological wellbeing * Coping * Stress * Positive psychology * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. '''APA style example:''' {{Hanging indent|1= Barbash, E. H. (2015). Emotional intelligence in professional psychology doctoral students: A cross-sectional study (Publication No. 3724176) [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/1725144779/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/1?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Carfagno, N. (2020). The factor structures of ability and trait emotional intelligences relative to general intelligence and personality. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/2466049130/3E4CE21A1D6E4E64PQ/4?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Givon, E., Itzhak-Raz, A., Danieli, G., Karmon-Presser, A., & Meiran, N. (2020, March). How Does the Emotional Experience Evolve? Feeling Generation as Evidence Accumulation. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/3yqigdmzyv?route=details Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(7), 925–938. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075 Luna, L. M. B., Vilar, M. M., Soto, C. M., & Santiago, J. L. C. (2021). Emotional intelligence measures: A systematic review. Healthcare, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9121696 Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Robinson, T. J., & Zell, E. (2026). Robust associations of emotional intelligence with human flourishing: A second-order meta-analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 123(19), e2532963123. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2532963123 Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The Science of Emotional Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 14(6), 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2021, December). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta‐analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well‐being using chinese samples. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/cwosfaeugr?route=details Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of subjective well-being in preadolescents: The role of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and perceived stress. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 135910532095160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951605 Zomer, L. (2012a). The relationships among emotional intelligence, gender, coping strategies, and well-being in the management of stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace [Master's thesis, University of Toronto]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/723018a77700f5c01e4992096ca8f1fa/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 3peg6a115k0r3vmkt7wso4yy5c81efg 0 331112 2830214 2829805 2026-09-01T15:11:33Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830214 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Value congruence and motivation:<br>How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} <div style="border: 2px solid #a2a9b1; border-radius: 15px; padding: 12px; background-color: #f8f9fa; width: 150px; float: right; margin: 0.6em 0 10px 10px;"> [[File:Student rushing to school.png|center|150px]] <div style="font-size: 85%; color: #333333; line-height: 1.4; padding-top: 8px; text-align: left;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student rushing to school (AI-Generated). </div> </div> Picture this: Your alarm rings at 8:30am, just in time to start school at 9:00. You roll out of bed, get dressed, brush your teeth, and grab a snack before heading out the door to leave for school. The walk is only 5 minutes away, and by this time, it is 8:50. With just 5 minutes to spare, you arrive at school and walk into class. You begin to chat with Jane, a fellow classmate and neighbour, who tells you that she arrived at school at 8:00am; well before you were even awake. You sit there while she talks about her morning, thinking “Why can I never make it to school as early as Jane does?”. You and Jane live next door to each other, are in the same grade, and attend the same classes. You are only ever on time when school finishes, leaving right as the final bell rings, while Jane often stays back after class. So, why is your daily routine so different from Jane’s? {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Values''' are at the forefront of many social and personal situations, acting as moral compasses guiding how we behave and interact with others. In this chapter, we look at how an alignment between '''personal and situational values''' can influence '''motivation''' throughout our day-to-day lives. The following dot points briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outlines how psychological science can help; * When personal and situational values are misaligned, this can create value incongruence. * Value incongruence is important to generate autonomous, and controlled motivation. * Consequences of value incongruence include burnout (e.g., job), lowered intrinsic motivation, and reduced engagement in daily tasks or activities. * Motivational science purports several notable psychological theories as both solutions and explanations for why value congruence or incongruence occurs. ** Such theories include; Self-Determinism Theory (SDT), Self-Concordance Theory, Motivational Congruence Theory, Person-Organisation (P-O) Fit, and Amity Goal Orientation Theory. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 📍 '''Focus questions''' * What are personal and situational values? * How do personal and situational values become aligned or misaligned? * How does value incongruence influence motivation? * When does value congruence strengthen or weaken motivation? * How can understanding value congruence help support motivation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are personal and situational values?== Introductory paragraph: Will discuss what values are and how they are relevant to human behaviour and motivation. Will then state that values can be differentiated into personal and situational values... === '''Understanding Personal Values''' === * <u>Schwartz (2012):</u> ** Theoretical underpinnings for understanding personal values, defining them as beliefs about desirable goals that influence people's decision-making and behaviour. ** Introduces different types of values, including self-direction, security, benevolence, and achievement. ** ''*Authors note: Will fill out a table with definitions of different value types below*'' *<u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> **Discusses how personally held values relate to self-endorsed behaviour and autonomous motivation. **Explain why pursuing something deemed 'meaningful' and reflecting one's own values can feel more enriching. {| class="wikitable" |+''*Table 1.'' Types of Personal Values ! colspan="2" |Schwartz (2012) proposes 10 basic personal values: |- |1. Self-Direction |... |- |2. Stimulation |... |- |3. Hedonism |... |- |4. Achievement |... |- |5. Power |... |- |6. Security |... |- |7. Conformity |... |- |8. Tradition |... |- |9. Benevolence |... |- |10. Universalism |... |} === '''Understanding Situational Values''' === * <u>van Vianen (2018):</u> ** Discusses person-environment fit, conveying an understanding of how characteristics of an environment can be compatible or incompatible with individuals characteristics and values. ** Often applied in organisational contexts - this will be discussed further in detail below. ** Conceptualises situational values as values communicated, encouraged, or prioritised within an individual's environment. *<u>Kristof (1996):</u> **A seminal article viewing organisational values as part of the environment in which people operate. **States that compatibility may occur when an individual and organisation share similar core characteristics or values. === '''Values and Goal Pursuit''' === * <u>Schartwz (2012):</u> ** Describes values as guiding principles that influence goal selection and behaviour - specifically the behaviour related to pursuing goals. ** Argues that goals are more likely to be pursued when they align with personal values. *<u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> **States that goals and behaviours may be pursued for different reasons, with a focus on autonomous motivation - when behaviour is personally endorsed and consistent with values. **Bridges the gap between what people value, what goals they pursue, and why they pursue them. == How do personal and situational values become aligned? == Introductory paragraph: Will discuss the fundamentals of how personal and situational values become aligned. Will introduce motivation theories... === '''Understanding Value Congruence''' === * <u>Kristof (1996):</u> ** Provides a basis for understanding value congruence, particularly that when 'fit' occurs when individuals and organisations share compatible values. ** Congruence is discussed as a 'match' between individual values and environmental values/provisions. *<u>van Vianen (2018):</u> **Expands on Kristof's (1996) discussion of value congruence, adding that compatibility may occur across multiple contexts rather than being limited to organisations. **Continues discussion on value congruence through person-environment fit; compatibility occurring between individuals and different aspects of their environment (i.e., some aspects may compatible, some may not be). === '''Understanding Value Incongruence''' === * <u>Bao et al. (2013):</u> ** Study providing empirical evidence of value incongruence and its relationship with individual and organisational wellbeing among Catalan nurses. ** An applied example/case study of what happens when individual personal values differ from situational values encouraged in their workplace. *<u>Hossli et al. (2025):</u> **Discusses personal-work value incongruence, proposing that a mismatch between personal and work (i.e., environmental) values produced poorer job-related outcomes. **Demonstrates that incongruence is far more than having different values, it considers degree of mismatch and extends to consequences for employees. [[File:Person-Organisation Fit Diagram.jpg|420x420px|alt=Figure 2. Person-Organisation Fit Scale|thumb|'''''Figure 2.''''' Person-Organisation Fit Scale]] === '''Person-Organisation Fit''' === *Kristof (1996): ** A key seminal source (briefly mentioned in above sections) for person-organisation fit. ** Compatibility between individuals and organisations can occurs through value similarity - a core concept for understanding person-organisation value congruence. *<u>Kristof-Brown et al. (2005):</u> **Later works of Kristof (1996), a meta-analytic study concerning person-organisation fit, person-job fit, person-group fit, and person-supervisor fit. **Demonstrates that fit it not as simple as employee-organisation, it extends to various people and aspects of that organisation/environment. **Emphasises the importance of value congruence for employee/individual outcomes. *See Figure 2 for a visual representation of the person-organisation fit scale. == How does value congruence influence motivation? == Introductory paragraph: Explains that value congruence can influence motivation - people more likely to invest in goals/activity's that are personally meaningful. Will then use theories to substantiate why this occurs. === '''Self-Determination Theory''' === * <u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> ** The self-determination theory (SDT) explains that motivation is more autonomous when behaviour is experienced through self-endorsed and consistent values. ** Thus, value congruence supports motivation by allowing individuals to experience their goals/actions as personally meaningful rather then forced upon externally. *<u>Li et al. (2015):</u> **Empirical support for the relationship between value congruence and work engagement - based on autonomous and controlled motivation. **Connects the principles of SDT to actual workplace motivation - important for applying value congruence in workplace contexts. === '''Self-Concordance Theory''' === * <u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> ** Supports the idea that goals are more motivating when consistent with individual interests and values. ** Explains why value-aligned goals are more likely to be pursued enthusiastically and continuously. * <u>Rawolle et al. (2016):</u> **Examines motive incongruence and its relationship with intrinsic motivation. **Explains what may happen when the motives underlying an individuals behaviour are misaligned with what they want or value in actuality. === '''Motivational Congruence Theory''' === *<u>Rawolle et al. (2016):</u> **Directly examines motive incongruence as well as its relationship with intrinsic motivation and burnout. **Explains why discrepancies between what people actually want or motivate themselves towards with what they actually do - these behaviours may undermine motivation. *<u>Hossli et al. (2025):</u> **Shows how value incongruence may affect outcomes through multiple psychological processes. **Demonstrates the complexity of how incongruence translates into reduced positive work outcomes. === '''Amity Goal Orientation Theory''' === *Schwartz (2012): **While Schwartz (2012) does not directly test the amity goal orientation theory, it lays the groundwork for this theory in terms of value types (e.g., benevolence, self-directed etc.). *<u>Levontin & Bardi (2019):</u> **Proposes that values can be used to understand the motivational basis of amity goal orientation; a prosocial goal orientation within achievement situations. **Employs Schwartz's (2012) theory of basic values in a small-scale meta-analysis, findings that the prosocial value of benevolence is positively related to amity goal orientation. **Power values were found as positively related to performance approach goal orientation, while self-direction values are positively tied to mastery goal orientation, and security values are positively linked to performance-avoidance goal orientation. == When can value congruence strengthen or weaken motivation? == Introductory paragraph: Builds on theoretical mechanisms and discusses value congruence as a complex phenomenon --> not automatically beneficial in every situation. === '''When Value Alignment Strengthens Motivation''' === * <u>Li et al. (2015):</u> ** Show that value congruence is positively associated with work engagement, partly through autonomous motivation. ** Argue that alignment is particularly motivating when individuals engage in activities for reasons that they personally endorse. *<u>Wang et al. (2018):</u> **Discuss the operation of value congruence in a transformational leadership and employee behaviour context. **Explains that alignment may strengthen motivation when organisational/leadership values are communicated in ways employees identify with. *<u>Lee et al. (2025):</u> **Emphasises the importance of leader-follower value congruence - alignment is particularly motivating when employees experience value compatibility with influential people/people in power (e.g., supervisors). === '''When Value Incongruence Undermines Motivation''' === * <u>Rawolle et al. (2016):</u> ** Demonstrates how motive incongruence is linked to burnout, with intrinsic motivation playing a mediating role. ** Supports the claim that persistent discrepancies between personal values and pursued goals can undermine motivation and wellbeing. *<u>Hossli et al. (2025):</u> **Examines the effects of personal-work value incongruence on job satisfaction and engagement. **Demonstrates how misalignment can produce negative outcomes when individuals cannot reconcile their personal values with their work environment. *<u>Bao et al. (2013):</u> **Discusses the consequences of value misalignment in an applied example (i.e., workplace context). === '''Individual Differences in Values and Motivation''' === * <u>Schwartz (2012):</u> ** Individuals differ in the importance they assign to different values. ** Provides an important explanation for why individuals in the same environment may be highly motived and others may be less motivated. *<u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> **Describes individuals differences in regard to the extent people experience motivation as autonomous versus controlled. **Argues that value congruence will not affect everyone in the same way - this describes the inherent nature of individual differences. *<u>Kristof-Brown et al. (2005):</u> **Different types of 'fit' have different relationships with workplace outcomes, which supports the idea that congruence effects depend on which specific aspect of the environment is being evaluated. * *''Authors note: Will use an example Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) in regard to individual differences''.*<br /> == How can understanding value congruence help support motivation? == Introductory paragraph: Moves away from theory and research into application. Explains why understanding the relationship between values and motivation is beneficial (e.g., for organisations, goal pursuit). How organisations can support sustained motivation. === '''Supporting Value-Aligned Motivation''' === * <u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> ** A strong theoretical basis for supporting motivation through autonomy, competence, and relatedness. ** Environments can support motivation by allowing people to understand and personally endorse the purpose behind behaviour. *<u>Li et al. (2015):</u> **Value congruence can support work engagement and autonomous motivation. **Value-aligned motivation can be supported by designing roles and goals that allow individuals to connect with their work in a personal and meaningful way. *<u>Rawolle et al. (2016):</u> **Discusses the potential consequences of motive incongruence (e.g., burnout). **By reducing discrepancies between employee's motives and their work, this can safeguard motivation and support wellbeing. === '''Organisational Value Congruence''' === * <u>Kristof (1996):</u> ** Theoretical underpinnings for person-organisation fit to understand and support individuals (e.g., employees) in a workplace setting. ** Value compatibility should be considered in organisations during the recruitment process, selection process, and throughout job design. *<u>Kristof-Brown et al. (2005):</u> **Empirical evidence through a meta-analysis, which supports the importance of different 'fit' forms. **Encourages organisations to consider compatibility through organisational values but also through jobs, teams, and supervisors. *<u>Lee et al. (2025):</u> **Emphasises how leader-follower value congruence is important in sustaining workplace dynamics and relationships. **Managers can support motivation through developing stronger connections between employee values and leader values. *<u>Wang et al. (2018):</u> **Leadership can connect organisational values with employee behaviour. **Discusses how leaders can model and reinforce shared values to encourage motivated behaviour. === '''Education and Everyday Life Value Congruence''' === * <u>Ryan & Deci (2018):</u> ** Applies value congruence beyond workplaces, especially in regard to autonomous motivation and meaningful, personal goals. ** Education example: activities that align with student values/goals may motivate students to learn more effectively and productively. *<u>Schwartz (2012):</u> **Individual differences can explain why different students or individuals may respond in different ways to the same situation - they prioritise different values. **Applied in both educational and everyday decision-making - considers how goals/tasks may reflect personal values. *<u>van Vianen (2018):</u> **The person-environment fit framework can be applied outside organisational contexts to best understand how individuals react and interact with different environments. **Can argue that motivation is supported when environments (e.g., schools, social groups, everyday settings) align with individual characteristics/values. ==Learning features== === Activity 1 - Motivation === Watch the linked youtube video before beginning Activity 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rrkrvAUbU9Y ;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''The Candle Scenario''' <br> In his TED talk, Dan Pink talks discusses motivation through "The Candle Scenario". Pink introduces the candle problem, originally developed by psychologist Karl Duncker in 1945. <br> Participants are given: - a candle - a box of thumbtacks - some matches - a wall - a table Answer the following multiple choice questions based on this scenario.{{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz display="simple"> {What was the main task in the candle problem? |type="()"} + Attach the candle to the wall without wax dripping onto the table. - Light the candle without using matches. - Use the thumbtacks to build a stand for the candle. - Attach the candle directly to the table using the thumbtacks. {Why did participants initially struggle to solve the candle problem? |type="()"} + They viewed the box only as a container for the thumbtacks rather than recognising that it could be used as part of the solution. - They did not have enough thumbtacks to attach the candle to the wall. - They were unable to light the candle because the matches were too short. - They believed the candle could not be removed from its packaging. {What did the candle problem demonstrate about the effects of external rewards on motivation? |type="()"} + External rewards can sometimes interfere with creative problem-solving on complex tasks. - External rewards always increase motivation and improve creative performance. - External rewards have no relationship with performance on creative tasks. - External rewards are the only effective way to motivate people to solve difficult problems. &lt;/quiz> </quiz> === Activity 2 - Value Congruence === The following scenario and subsequent quiz are designed to test the reader's understanding of value congruence and motivation in everyday life settings. <nowiki>*</nowiki>''Authors Note: Will insert scenario and quiz for activity 2 at a later stage once chapter is more developed''.* ;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Scenario 2:''' <br> {{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The conclusion will bring the attention back to the scenario described in the overview, however, it will answer the fundamental question of why yourself (in the scenario) and Jane experience such differences in motivation. * Will review each of the focus questions and present a finalised answer based on the chapter content. * Will summarise how value congruence is related to motivation through theory and empirical evidence. * * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Theory of basic human values|Theory of basic human values]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Value_(ethics)|Values (ethics)]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bao, Y., Vedina, R., Moodie, S., & Dolan, S. (2013). The relationship between value incongruence and individual and organizational well-being outcomes: An exploratory study among Catalan nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(3), 631–641. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06045.x Hoffman, B. J., & Woehr, D. J. (2006). A quantitative review of the relationship between person–organization fit and behavioral outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(3), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.08.003 Hossli, N., Natter, M., & Algesheimer, R. (2025). On the importance of congruence between personal and work values – How value incongruence affects job satisfaction: A multiple mediation model. International Journal of Wellbeing, 14(3), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v14i3.2905 Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49(1), 1–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1996.tb01790.x Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x Lee, A., Newman, A., Maio, G. R., Piplani, R. S., & Harvey, W. S. (2025). Leader-follower value congruence: A systematic review of the literature and a future research agenda. The Leadership Quarterly, 36(6), Article 101922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2025.101922 Levontin, L., & Bardi, A. (2019). Using personal values to understand the motivational basis of amity goal orientation. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02736 Li, M., Wang, Z., You, X., & Gao, J. (2015). Value congruence and teachers’ work engagement: The mediating role of autonomous and controlled motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 80, 113–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.021 Rawolle, M., Wallis, M. S. v, Badham, R., & Kehr, H. M. (2016). No fit, no fun: The effect of motive incongruence on job burnout and the mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 65–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.030 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. The Guildford Press. Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1116 van Vianen, A. E. (2018). Person–environment fit: A review of its basic tenets. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(5), 75-101. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104702 Wang, X., Zhou, K., & Liu, W. (2018). Value Congruence: A Study of Green Transformational Leadership and Employee Green Behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1946. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01946 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.melrobbins.com/topic/motivation/ The motivation hub] - (Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/canberra/detail.action?docID=6488159 Understanding motivation and emotion] - (Reeve, 2024) {{ic|If using this as a source, move into References}} * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anna_marie_dipasquale_align_your_life_with_your_core_values_and_natural_talents Value congruence TED talk] - (DiPasquale, 2019) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Values]] ddthc3udje7nysksdq2127cgzli1cxw 0 331114 2830288 2830070 2026-09-01T20:26:29Z U3281503 3106990 Added picture 2830288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognition and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] 6vxnmbe2h9vr9aacjtga7mfg9c2akip 2830289 2830288 2026-09-01T20:33:58Z U3281503 3106990 added feature box 2830289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] n0yxb6sf31tr55inw3j1frbg98embtq 2830290 2830289 2026-09-01T20:37:44Z U3281503 3106990 2830290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] 3v95r2fcrpqsdm1x4gbjgsp1qbnw4re 2830291 2830290 2026-09-01T20:48:27Z U3281503 3106990 added table 2830291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] q40xqv74pb8vguuk2zfwfe94lnpx5x1 2830293 2830291 2026-09-01T20:52:26Z U3281503 3106990 embedded table in feature box 2830293 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] cq49m6y9n7npzay7j7hygghgbwa2owi 2830296 2830293 2026-09-01T21:08:53Z U3281503 3106990 2830296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] mytax1eg2mjlfvoff10dt68vc8zj5tx 2830298 2830296 2026-09-01T21:14:50Z U3281503 3106990 added links 2830298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation|Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation]] * [[Motivation]] ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] hez5yd924b7qldemd01dfrqz1v9d58d 2830300 2830298 2026-09-01T21:21:47Z U3281503 3106990 /* See also */ uploaded links 2830300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-know-your-brain Brain basics: Know your brain] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation|Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation]] * [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] * [https://neurosity.co/guides/brain-reward-system-dopamine-motivation Your brain's reward system] ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] 5gyw1u3g2l2suakqzmbywerzpfltpt2 2830301 2830300 2026-09-01T21:35:29Z U3281503 3106990 Added reference 2830301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-know-your-brain Brain basics: Know your brain] * [https://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/nidappg/brain_reward_pathways.html Brain reward pathways] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation|Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation]] * [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] * [https://neurosity.co/guides/brain-reward-system-dopamine-motivation Your brain's reward system]<br /> ==References== Berridge, K. C., Robinson, T. E., & Aldridge, J. W. (2009). Dissecting components of reward:‘liking’,‘wanting’, and learning. Current opinion in pharmacology, 9(1), 65-73. Berridge, K. C. (2012). From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation. European Journal of neuroscience, 35(7), 1124-1143. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] sji8882255jf5la9jphu1xww8r4amdk 2830302 2830301 2026-09-01T21:40:23Z U3281503 3106990 Hanging indent 2830302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Subcortical structures and motivational drive:<br>How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop}} [[File:Motivation for behavior.png|thumb|Figure 1. An example of motivational drive in everyday behaviour, illustrating how hunger can influence attention, thoughts and behavior toward obtaining food.]] ; Imagine this, a person has gone several hours without eating. As their hunger increases, they become increasingly focused on finding food. The sight or smell of food captures their attention, and they feel a strong urge to eat even though they may have other tasks to complete. What causes this motivational drive? Motivated behaviour is influenced by both psychological and biological processes. Subcortical structures are brain regions located beneath the cerebral cortex that contribute to processes involved in motivation, emotion, reward and biological regulation. Understanding how these structures function can help explain how internal states and external stimuli influence motivated behaviour. Psychological and neuroscientific research can provide insight into how motivational states arise and how they are translated into behaviour. Rather than being controlled by a single brain region, motivation involves interactions among multiple neural systems. This chapter will examine the role of subcortical structures in motivational drive and consider how these neural processes contribute to motivated behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the major subcortical brain regions involved in basic motivational processes? * How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses? * How do physiological needs influence motivational energy and behaviour? * How do subcortical brain regions interact to regulate motivated behaviour? * What does research on subcortical motivational systems reveal about basic human motivation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 1. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivation == ==== Key points ==== * Subcortical brain regions form interconnected neural systems that contribute to basic motivational processes, including physiological regulation, reward, emotion and behavioural activation (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Rather than motivation being controlled by a single "motivation centre", different subcortical structures contribute to different components of motivated behaviour and communicate with one another (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will focus on the '''hypothalamus, amygdala, ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens and midbrain dopaminergic regions''' as key structures involved in motivational processes. === 1.1 The hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation === ==== Key points ==== * The hypothalamus is central to homeostatic regulation and links physiological states with motivated behaviours such as feeding, helping the organism respond to changes in internal conditions (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Changes in physiological states can activate hypothalamic neural circuits that contribute to the generation of motivational states and behaviours directed towards restoring physiological balance (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.2 The amygdala and motivational salience === ==== Key points ==== * The amygdala contributes to the processing of emotionally significant stimuli, allowing emotionally relevant information to influence motivation and behaviour (Berridge, 2009). * When stimuli acquire emotional or motivational significance, amygdala-related processes can influence attention, approach and avoidance behaviours (Berridge, 2009). * Research on motivational circuitry demonstrates interactions between the amygdala and other subcortical reward-related systems, supporting its role within broader motivational networks (Berridge, 2009; Haber & Behrens, 2014). === 1.3 The ventral striatum and reward === ==== Key points ==== * The ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, is associated with reward-related motivation and incentive processes that influence behaviour (Berridge, 2012). * Reward-related neural activity can increase the motivational value of particular outcomes and promote behaviour directed towards obtaining those outcomes (Berridge, 2012). * Research on dopamine and reward circuitry indicates that ventral striatal systems contribute to reward seeking, behavioural activation and effortful behaviour (Salamone et al., 2018). == 2. Generation of basic motivational impulses == ==== Key points ==== * Motivational impulses can emerge when physiological needs or motivationally significant environmental stimuli activate interconnected neural systems (Berridge, 2012). * Basic motivational processes involve interactions between internal physiological states, neural signalling and information about potentially rewarding or significant outcomes (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This section will examine how homeostatic and reward-related mechanisms contribute to the emergence and direction of motivational impulses. === 2.1 Homeostatic signals and motivational states === ==== Key points ==== * Homeostatic approaches propose that deviations from an optimal physiological state can create motivational states that encourage behaviour aimed at restoring physiological balance. * Internal signals associated with physiological needs can influence subcortical systems, particularly hypothalamic circuits, to generate motivational responses (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). * Research on feeding-related neural circuits demonstrates that hypothalamic activity can influence the initiation and regulation of motivated feeding behaviour (Rossi & Stuber, 2018). === 2.2 Reward and incentive motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Reward is not a single process; research distinguishes between "liking", and learning, with incentive motivation referring to the process that makes particular outcomes attractive and encourages their pursuit (Berridge et al., 2009). * Dopamine-related systems contribute to incentive motivation and behavioural activation rather than simply producing pleasurable experiences (Salamone et al., 2018). * This helps explain how subcortical systems can generate the motivational pull or "energy" that encourages an organism to pursue a desired outcome. == 3. Physiological needs, motivational energy and behaviour == ==== Key points ==== * Physiological needs can change both the direction and intensity of motivated behaviour by altering an organism's internal state. * Hunger provides a useful example of how a physiological need can influence attention, reward processing and behaviour (Opland et al., 2013). * This section will explore how physiological states can generate motivational energy and influence behavioural priorities. === 3.1 Hunger and feeding motivation === ==== Key points ==== * Hunger can be understood as a motivational state associated with physiological signals indicating a need for energy or nutrients. * Hypothalamic circuits contribute to feeding motivation, while interactions with reward-related systems influence the attractiveness and pursuit of food (Rossi & Stuber, 2018; Opland et al., 2013). * Hunger therefore illustrates how a physiological need can be translated by subcortical systems into a motivational impulse and subsequent food-seeking behaviour. === 3.2 Motivational energy and effort === ==== Key points ==== * Motivation involves not only wanting an outcome but also the willingness to expend effort to obtain it (Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopamine-related systems have been linked to behavioural activation and effort-based responding, suggesting a role in the energetic aspects of motivation (Salamone et al., 2018). * This research helps explain why motivational states can influence how strongly an individual engages in effortful behaviour to achieve a goal. == 4. Interactions between subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== [[File:Subcortical regions 2026.png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Major subcortical brain regions involved in motivational drive and their interactions in regulating physiological needs, reward and behavioural activation.]] * Subcortical structures do not operate independently; motivated behaviour emerges through interactions between systems involved in homeostasis, reward, emotion and behavioural selection (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * The motivational value of an outcome can change depending on an individual's physiological state, demonstrating interaction between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Examining these interactions helps explain how an internal need can influence what an individual wants, how strongly they want it and the effort they are willing to invest. === 4.1 Homeostatic and reward systems === ==== Key points ==== * Physiological states can influence the reward value of particular stimuli, meaning that the same outcome may become more or less motivating depending on current needs (Opland et al., 2013). * Interactions between hypothalamic and mesolimbic systems help connect physiological regulation with reward-related motivation. * These interactions demonstrate how a physiological need can increase the motivational value of a particular outcome and energise behaviour directed towards it. === 4.2 Dopamine and motivational control === ==== Key points ==== * Dopamine is involved in several aspects of motivation, including incentive motivation, behavioural activation and effort, rather than simply producing pleasure (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Dopaminergic systems interact with the ventral striatum and other neural structures to influence reward-related behaviour. * These findings help explain how subcortical systems can contribute to the energetic component of motivation by influencing behavioural activation and effort. === 4.3 From neural interaction to motivated behaviour === ==== Key points ==== * Motivated behaviour requires the integration of internal physiological states, reward information and environmental cues. * Interconnected neural circuits allow motivational information to influence the selection and performance of appropriate behaviours (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * This provides a network-based explanation for how motivational impulses can develop into coordinated, goal-directed actions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Subcortical brain systems involved in motivational drive and their contribution to motivated behaviour !Subcortical system !Primary motivational role !How it contributes to motivation !Example of motivated behaviour |- |'''''Hypothalamus''''' |Homeostasis and physiological needs |Detects and responds to changes in internal physiological states and helps generate motivational states related to needs such as hunger. |Seeking and consuming food when hungry |- |'''''Amygdala''''' |Emotional and motivational salience |Processes emotionally significant information and influences the motivational value of environmental stimuli. |Approaching rewarding stimuli or avoiding threatening stimuli |- |'''''Ventral striatum / nucleus accumbens''''' |Reward and incentive motivation |Contributes to the pursuit of rewarding outcomes and the motivational pull of desirable stimuli. |Seeking food or other rewarding outcomes |- |'''''Dopaminergic systems''''' |Behavioural activation and effort |Supports incentive motivation, behavioural activation and willingness to expend effort to obtain desired outcomes. |Persisting with effort to obtain a desired reward |- |'''''Interconnected subcortical circuits''''' |Integration of motivational information |Interactions between homeostatic, emotional and reward systems help translate physiological needs and environmental cues into coordinated motivated behaviour. |Adjusting behaviour according to current needs and available rewards |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == 5. Evidence for subcortical motivational systems == ==== Key points ==== * Research into motivation uses behavioural, neurobiological and neuroscientific approaches to investigate how subcortical structures contribute to motivated behaviour. Evidence from these approaches can help connect physiological states, neural activity and observable behaviour (Berridge, 2012; Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Neurobiological research has identified interconnected hypothalamic, amygdala, striatal and dopaminergic systems associated with reward, motivation and behavioural activation, while behavioural research demonstrates that motivational states can influence approach behaviour, effort and decisions about which actions to pursue (Berridge, 2012; Salamone et al., 2018). * Research on feeding provides evidence that physiological states can influence reward processing and motivated behaviour through interactions between homeostatic and reward systems (Opland et al., 2013). * Findings across these areas suggest that subcortical mechanisms provide an important biological basis for motivation, but they do not fully explain complex human motivated behaviour. Psychological processes such as learning, cognit ion and emotion, together with environmental context, also interact with neural systems to influence behaviour (Haber & Behrens, 2014). * Overall, the research supports a '''network-based understanding of motivational drive''', in which multiple subcortical systems work together to translate physiological and motivational information into behavioural activation, while broader psychological processes influence how these systems are expressed. ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-know-your-brain Brain basics: Know your brain] * [https://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/nidappg/brain_reward_pathways.html Brain reward pathways] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation|Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation]] * [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] * [https://neurosity.co/guides/brain-reward-system-dopamine-motivation Your brain's reward system]<br /> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berridge, K. C., Robinson, T. E., & Aldridge, J. W. (2009). Dissecting components of reward:‘liking’,‘wanting’, and learning. Current opinion in pharmacology, 9(1), 65-73. Berridge, K. C. (2012). From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation. European Journal of neuroscience, 35(7), 1124-1143. Haber, S. N., & Behrens, T. E. (2014). The neural network underlying incentive-based learning: implications for interpreting circuit disruptions in psychiatric disorders. Neuron, 83(5), 1019-1039. Opland, D., Sutton, A., Woodworth, H., Brown, J., Bugescu, R., Garcia, A., Christensen, L., Rhodes, C., Myers Jr, M., & Leinninger, G. (2013). Loss of neurotensin receptor-1 disrupts the control of the mesolimbic dopamine system by leptin and promotes hedonic feeding and obesity. Molecular metabolism, 2(4), 423-434. Rossi, M. A., & Stuber, G. D. (2018). Overlapping brain circuits for homeostatic and hedonic feeding. Cell metabolism, 27(1), 42-56. Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Yang, J.-H., Rotolo, R., & Presby, R. (2018). Dopamine, effort-based choice, and behavioral economics: basic and translational research. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 12, 52. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] tsw4203puylmyp19nsh0urnt838frgg 0 331150 2830203 2826037 2026-09-01T12:22:23Z HawaSA 3106307 2830203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario Harry and Caitlin have both recently started university and are adjusting to their new environment. [[File:People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week MS-5342 012 002.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Insert caption that illustrates scenario]] Harry throws himself into orientation week, joining clubs and making an effort to sit next to people he recognises. However, when plans are made without him or his messages go unanswered, he wonders whether people actually like him. After hanging out with some new friends, he replays conversations and wonders what he could have done differently Caitlin chats easily with people at events and joins a few clubs, but she often turns down invitations to catch up outside of university. When conversations turn more personal or people begin trying to get to know her better, she makes an excuse to leave early and may decide not to attend next time. Although she enjoys being included, she finds keeping some distance more comfortable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * How does self-determination theory explain relatedness as a basic psychological need? * How does attachment theory conceptualise different styles of attachment? * How are attachment styles understood in adulthood? * How do different attachment styles influence relatedness motivation? * How might experiences of relatedness shape attachment over time? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==insert heading title here== ==Attachment theory and attachment styles== * Attachment thoery was first developed by British Psychoanalyst John Bowlby, who sought to understand the anxiety and distress infants experience when separated from their primary caregivers * Bowlby observed that infants use attachment behaviours (e.g. crying, clinging, following) to prevent separation from, or re-establish proximity to, their caregivers. (Bowlby, 1958) * He argued that these attachment behaviours were evolutionary and adaptive functions; infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure (someone who provides support, protection, and care) would be more likely to survive to reproductive age, making proximity-seeking a survival mechanism; He coined this the attachment behavioural system, an innate psychobiological mechanism that motivates individuals to seek and maintain closeness to a primary caregiver or attachment figure for safety and protection (Bowlby, 1982/1969) * Although Bowlby considered the attachment system to be universal, he recognised that infants could differ in how attachment was experienced and expressed; He theorised that early attachment experiences with caregivers contribute to an internal working model (a mental representations of expectations of whether attachment figures are available and responsive, and whether the self is worthy of care and support); An infants internal working model is thought to guide how they respond to situations that activate their attachment system (i.e. distress, separation), expectations on whether support will be available influence whether the infant seeks proximity and reassurance, intensifies attachment behaviours, or withdraws and suppresses attachment needs (Bretherton & Munholland, 2008; Collins & Allard, 2004; Sherman et al., 2015) * While Bowlby provided a theoretical understanding, Mary Ainsworth extended his work by examining how differences in attachment were expressed in infant's behaviour. * Mary Ainsworth was an American-Canadian developmental psychologist who developed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_situation Strange Situation procedure], which involved observing infants during brief separations from and reunions with their caregivers * During the procedure, attention is paid to four aspects of the infants behaviour (Ainsworth et al., 1978): ** The amount of exploration the infant engaged in (e.g. playing with new toys) throughout. ** The infant's reactions to the departure of their caregiver. ** The infant's response to being alone with a stranger. ** The infant's behaviour when reunited with their caregiver. * Based on these observations, the infants were categorised into three groups that would become foundation of attachment styes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} considering breaking this part into subsections (i.e. attachment behavioural systems, internal working model, Mary Ainsworth and strange situation procedure). However would that be too many (would it improve readability/clarity?) Additionally, this overview of theory may be too deep (i.e. is all this info necessary, am I straying from the main focus) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Secure attachment=== ===Anxious-ambivalent attachment=== ===Anxious-avoidant attachment=== ===Disorganised-disoriented attachment=== ===Attachment in adulthood=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} should this be a level 3 heading? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==insert heading title here== ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Anxious-preoccupied_attachment|Anxious attachment]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Self-determination theory]] (Wikiversity) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships/Attachment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological/Relatedness]] fj80i6jr1lhku7l4uwk09xf2yve1dli 2830204 2830203 2026-09-01T12:52:04Z HawaSA 3106307 2830204 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario Harry and Caitlin have both recently started university and are adjusting to their new environment. [[File:People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week MS-5342 012 002.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Insert caption that illustrates scenario]] Harry throws himself into orientation week, joining clubs and making an effort to sit next to people he recognises. However, when plans are made without him or his messages go unanswered, he wonders whether people actually like him. After hanging out with some new friends, he replays conversations and wonders what he could have done differently Caitlin chats easily with people at events and joins a few clubs, but she often turns down invitations to catch up outside of university. When conversations turn more personal or people begin trying to get to know her better, she makes an excuse to leave early and may decide not to attend next time. Although she enjoys being included, she finds keeping some distance more comfortable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * How does self-determination theory explain relatedness as a basic psychological need? * How does attachment theory conceptualise different styles of attachment? * How are attachment styles understood in adulthood? * How do different attachment styles influence relatedness motivation? * How might experiences of relatedness shape attachment over time? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Self-determination theory== ===Autonomy=== ===Competence=== ===Relatedness=== ==Attachment theory and attachment styles== * Attachment thoery was first developed by British Psychoanalyst John Bowlby, who sought to understand the anxiety and distress infants experience when separated from their primary caregivers * Bowlby observed that infants use attachment behaviours (e.g. crying, clinging, following) to prevent separation from, or re-establish proximity to, their caregivers. (Bowlby, 1958) * He argued that these attachment behaviours were evolutionary and adaptive functions; infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure (someone who provides support, protection, and care) would be more likely to survive to reproductive age, making proximity-seeking a survival mechanism; He coined this the attachment behavioural system, an innate psychobiological mechanism that motivates individuals to seek and maintain closeness to a primary caregiver or attachment figure for safety and protection (Bowlby, 1982) * Although Bowlby considered the attachment system to be universal, he recognised that infants could differ in how attachment was experienced and expressed; He theorised that early attachment experiences with caregivers contribute to an internal working model (a mental representations of expectations of whether attachment figures are available and responsive, and whether the self is worthy of care and support); An infants internal working model is thought to guide how they respond to situations that activate their attachment system (i.e. distress, separation), expectations on whether support will be available influence whether the infant seeks proximity and reassurance, intensifies attachment behaviours, or withdraws and suppresses attachment needs (Bretherton & Munholland, 2008; Collins & Allard, 2004; Sherman et al., 2015) * While Bowlby provided a theoretical understanding, Mary Ainsworth extended his work by examining how differences in attachment were expressed in infant's behaviour. * Mary Ainsworth was an American-Canadian developmental psychologist who developed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_situation Strange Situation procedure], which involved observing infants during brief separations from and reunions with their caregivers * During the procedure, attention is paid to four aspects of the infants behaviour (Ainsworth et al., 1978): ** The amount of exploration the infant engaged in (e.g. playing with new toys) throughout. ** The infant's reactions to the departure of their caregiver. ** The infant's response to being alone with a stranger. ** The infant's behaviour when reunited with their caregiver. * Based on these observations, the infants were categorised into three groups that would become foundation of attachment styes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} considering breaking this part into subsections (i.e. attachment behavioural systems, internal working model, Mary Ainsworth and strange situation procedure). However would that be too many (would it improve readability/clarity?) Additionally, this overview of theory may be too deep (i.e. is all this info necessary, am I straying from the main focus) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Secure attachment=== ===Anxious-ambivalent attachment=== ===Anxious-avoidant attachment=== ===Disorganised-disoriented attachment=== ===Attachment in adulthood=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} should this be a level 3 heading? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Attachment styles and the need for relatedness== ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Anxious-preoccupied_attachment|Anxious attachment]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Self-determination theory]] (Wikiversity) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). ''Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation''. Lawrence Erlbaum. Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother. ''Int J Psychoanal'', 39(5), 350-373. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. ''American Journal of Orthopsychiatry'', 52(4), 664-678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In ''Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications'', 2nd ed. (pp. 102-127). The Guilford Press. Collins, N. L., & Allard, L. M. (2004). ''Cognitive Representations of Attachment: The Content and Function of Working Models''. Blackwell Publishing. Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review. ''Developmental Review'', 37, 109-141. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001 }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships/Attachment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological/Relatedness]] 6hdou3vfw76h5qpbgjdbjtcziu1nnx3 2830428 2830204 2026-09-02T07:57:37Z HawaSA 3106307 2830428 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario Harry and Caitlin have both recently started university and are adjusting to their new environment. [[File:People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week MS-5342 012 002.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Insert caption that illustrates scenario]] Harry throws himself into orientation week, joining clubs and making an effort to sit next to people he recognises. However, when plans are made without him or his messages go unanswered, he wonders whether people actually like him. After hanging out with some new friends, he replays conversations and wonders what he could have done differently Caitlin chats easily with people at events and joins a few clubs, but she often turns down invitations to catch up outside of university. When conversations turn more personal or people begin trying to get to know her better, she makes an excuse to leave early and may decide not to attend next time. Although she enjoys being included, she finds keeping some distance more comfortable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Explain relatedness as a basic psychological need within self-determinantion theory and briefly explain its importance for psychological functioning, belonging, motivation, and wellbeing ** e.g. feeling connected, accepted, and that we belong is associated with better ... '''(source)''' * Briefly introduce attachment theory (remebering to keep it shallow as we delve deeper into definiton and explanations in the section) and how people may differ in how the need for relatedness is experienced and expressed * central issue of the chapter; {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} I don't know if i'm thinking to deeply into the chapter question, but the way i want to answer it consists of two parts three parts # Do attachment styles effect the need for relatedness # Do different attachment styles affect the strength of the need itself or the way it's regulated and expressed hard to argue/look into how attachment styles affect the need for relatedness with establishing whether or not there is an effect in the first place. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * outline the aim of the chapter: to draw on psychological theory and research to examine how secure, anxious, avoidant and fearful-avoidant attachment styles may influence relatedness motivation, and the reverse (whether experiences of relatedness may also contribute to changes in attachment over time). '''''probably not necessary but sounds interesting to look into''''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * How does self-determination theory explain relatedness as a basic psychological need? * How does attachment theory conceptualise different styles of attachment? * How are attachment styles understood in adulthood? * How do different attachment styles influence relatedness motivation? * How might experiences of relatedness shape attachment over time? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Self-determination theory== ===Autonomy=== ===Competence=== ===Relatedness=== ==Attachment theory and attachment styles== * Attachment thoery was first developed by British Psychoanalyst John Bowlby, who sought to understand the anxiety and distress infants experience when separated from their primary caregivers * Bowlby observed that infants use attachment behaviours (e.g. crying, clinging, following) to prevent separation from, or re-establish proximity to, their caregivers. (Bowlby, 1958) * He argued that these attachment behaviours were evolutionary and adaptive functions; infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure (someone who provides support, protection, and care) would be more likely to survive to reproductive age, making proximity-seeking a survival mechanism; He coined this the attachment behavioural system, an innate psychobiological mechanism that motivates individuals to seek and maintain closeness to a primary caregiver or attachment figure for safety and protection (Bowlby, 1982) * Although Bowlby considered the attachment system to be universal, he recognised that infants could differ in how attachment was experienced and expressed; He theorised that early attachment experiences with caregivers contribute to an internal working model (a mental representations of expectations of whether attachment figures are available and responsive, and whether the self is worthy of care and support); An infants internal working model is thought to guide how they respond to situations that activate their attachment system (i.e. distress, separation), expectations on whether support will be available influence whether the infant seeks proximity and reassurance, intensifies attachment behaviours, or withdraws and suppresses attachment needs (Bretherton & Munholland, 2008; Collins & Allard, 2004; Sherman et al., 2015) * While Bowlby provided a theoretical understanding, Mary Ainsworth extended his work by examining how differences in attachment were expressed in infant's behaviour. * Mary Ainsworth was an American-Canadian developmental psychologist who developed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_situation Strange Situation procedure], which involved observing infants during brief separations from and reunions with their caregivers * During the procedure, attention is paid to four aspects of the infants behaviour (Ainsworth et al., 1978): ** The amount of exploration the infant engaged in (e.g. playing with new toys) throughout. ** The infant's reactions to the departure of their caregiver. ** The infant's response to being alone with a stranger. ** The infant's behaviour when reunited with their caregiver. * Based on these observations, the infants were categorised into three groups that would become foundation of attachment styes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} considering breaking this part into subsections (i.e. attachment behavioural systems, internal working model, Mary Ainsworth and strange situation procedure). However would that be too many (would it improve readability/clarity?) Additionally, this overview of theory may be too deep (i.e. is all this info necessary, am I straying from the main focus) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Secure attachment=== ===Anxious-ambivalent attachment=== ===Anxious-avoidant attachment=== ===Disorganised-disoriented attachment=== ===Attachment in adulthood=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} should this be a level 3 heading? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Attachment styles and the need for relatedness== ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Anxious-preoccupied_attachment|Anxious attachment]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Self-determination theory]] (Wikiversity) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). ''Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation''. Lawrence Erlbaum. Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother. ''Int J Psychoanal'', 39(5), 350-373. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. ''American Journal of Orthopsychiatry'', 52(4), 664-678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In ''Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications'', 2nd ed. (pp. 102-127). The Guilford Press. Collins, N. L., & Allard, L. M. (2004). ''Cognitive Representations of Attachment: The Content and Function of Working Models''. Blackwell Publishing. Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review. ''Developmental Review'', 37, 109-141. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001 }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships/Attachment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological/Relatedness]] mgy4k74n7yyaa3ydqp2xl6dgmikyxx1 0 331168 2830353 2829284 2026-09-02T02:34:41Z U3279062 3106301 edited headings to match sentence casing 2830353 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? Individual and relationship factors may influence how people interact and respond to similar situations (Valentova et al., 2020). * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding and regulation are important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020), which works together to manage jealousy. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining romantic jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * Maya's reaction illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. 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Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] 72rrx7sz51k2od4nsp657737x9vc0vm 2830354 2830353 2026-09-02T02:40:08Z U3279062 3106301 added individual differences dot point 2830354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? Individual and relationship factors may influence how people interact and respond to similar situations (Valentova et al., 2020). * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding and regulation are important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020), which works together to manage jealousy. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining romantic jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * Maya's reaction illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. 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International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] 6m6bv3evz8cu6ex6aacwahmbrb14kcx 2830361 2830354 2026-09-02T03:10:28Z U3279062 3106301 fleshed out intro GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]], specifically romantic jealousy, involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship . The threat can be real or imagined, can be perceived due to the presence of a rival, or be felt due to fear of a loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals, which is due to the interaction between individual differences like gender and sexual orientation, and social differences like relationship status and type, and how they influence how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behaviour, with jealosuy ioften being associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour, however , the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationship, with romantic jealosy often being tied with damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important in managing the emotion and its consequences as it can help people to distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and the construction of responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020), which can be a start in managing jealousy. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining romantic jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * Maya's reaction illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] 3d477gxzjsk07hv463hg7k2jjkso4l3 2830363 2830361 2026-09-02T03:21:49Z U3279062 3106301 overall edit of overview section. 2830363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining romantic jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * Maya's reaction illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] 8xrsv00vpeuk6n3arlf2u93kattaj1p 2830368 2830363 2026-09-02T03:30:49Z U3279062 3106301 fleshed out what is romantic jealousy GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * Maya's reaction illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] 0afkdk9m3vwqwfyt2v7uf9cmd8z45bj 2830369 2830368 2026-09-02T03:45:01Z U3279062 3106301 fleshed out defining romantic jealousy GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === As previously outlined, jealousy is a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important relationship. Romantic jealousy is a subtype of jealousy that concerns individuals in a romantic or intimate relationship. In a romantic relationship, the bond between the individuals involved is what is threatened, whether by a potential or imagined loss (suspicious jealousy) or an actual loss (fait accompli jealousy) (Miller & Benz, 2013). The situation in which the perceived threat is felt does not have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. Differences between events and situations that incite jealousy may reflect the appraisals made about the situation and how those appraisals elicit emotions (Scherer et al., 2001). The experience of jealousy may involve cognition, emotion, and motivation. Behaviour may follow these factors directly; however, it is not necessary and is not the same as experiencing jealousy. Maya's reaction of feeling jealous illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] masbsm9cvl9iv5eaq6urqp6nsk29qhh 2830370 2830369 2026-09-02T03:53:33Z U3279062 3106301 fleshed out jealousy and related emotions GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === As previously outlined, jealousy is a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important relationship. Romantic jealousy is a subtype of jealousy that concerns individuals in a romantic or intimate relationship. In a romantic relationship, the bond between the individuals involved is what is threatened, whether by a potential or imagined loss (suspicious jealousy) or an actual loss (fait accompli jealousy) (Miller & Benz, 2013). The situation in which the perceived threat is felt does not have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. Differences between events and situations that incite jealousy may reflect the appraisals made about the situation and how those appraisals elicit emotions (Scherer et al., 2001). The experience of jealousy may involve cognition, emotion, and motivation. Behaviour may follow these factors directly; however, it is not necessary and is not the same as experiencing jealousy. Maya's reaction of feeling jealous illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as envy. Jealousy aligns with the above-given definition of a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person. Envy is separate and distinct. Envy is generally a negative emotion associated with wanting or desiring what someone else has. Envy can involve anything, such as a physical item, wealth, success, power, or a trait or quality. A distinction between jealousy and envy, as demonstrated in Table 1, is that jealousy is concerned with a threat or loss, whilst envy is concerned with wanting to gain something. Several other emotions may accompany jealousy; however, they are not interchangeable, as jealousy is its own unique emotion. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * Jealousy can prompt maladaptive responses which may include conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour. cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] 2c85ia89xdbweii84j6mu8vkob1bt5s 2830371 2830370 2026-09-02T04:05:13Z U3279062 3106301 fleshed out is jealousy inherently harmful section GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === As previously outlined, jealousy is a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important relationship. Romantic jealousy is a subtype of jealousy that concerns individuals in a romantic or intimate relationship. In a romantic relationship, the bond between the individuals involved is what is threatened, whether by a potential or imagined loss (suspicious jealousy) or an actual loss (fait accompli jealousy) (Miller & Benz, 2013). The situation in which the perceived threat is felt does not have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. Differences between events and situations that incite jealousy may reflect the appraisals made about the situation and how those appraisals elicit emotions (Scherer et al., 2001). The experience of jealousy may involve cognition, emotion, and motivation. Behaviour may follow these factors directly; however, it is not necessary and is not the same as experiencing jealousy. Maya's reaction of feeling jealous illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as envy. Jealousy aligns with the above-given definition of a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person. Envy is separate and distinct. Envy is generally a negative emotion associated with wanting or desiring what someone else has. Envy can involve anything, such as a physical item, wealth, success, power, or a trait or quality. A distinction between jealousy and envy, as demonstrated in Table 1, is that jealousy is concerned with a threat or loss, whilst envy is concerned with wanting to gain something. Several other emotions may accompany jealousy; however, they are not interchangeable, as jealousy is its own unique emotion. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful? === Experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. The significance of jealousy may depend partly on how you interpret the experience and how you express it. An important point to note is that emotions do not equal behaviour. Feeling jealous, or even imagining behaving based on that jealousy, does not mean an individual is acting jealously. Jealousy is not always irrational or out of the blue; often, it stems from somewhere, so the emotion can have benefits. Dillon (2013) wrote that " beginning in infancy, humans display reactivity toward potential threats that can affect their care which is connected to their ability to thrive" and that "reactivity in the form of jealousy, serves to regain attention and care". This shows that jealousy can have an adaptive or positive function, potentially acting as an information signal, motivating attention toward a relationship concern, motivating relationship-protective behaviour, or prompting communication. In contrast to jealousy's potential positive outcomes, it can also prompt maladaptive responses, including conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour (Elphinston et al., 2013).  <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * In this chapters scenario, Maya feels jealous * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] lxbrgrzu0rem4baqnyclzgqf4889s4s 2830374 2830371 2026-09-02T04:12:00Z U3279062 3106301 lightly changed wording of why does romantic jealousy occur section 2830374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === As previously outlined, jealousy is a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important relationship. Romantic jealousy is a subtype of jealousy that concerns individuals in a romantic or intimate relationship. In a romantic relationship, the bond between the individuals involved is what is threatened, whether by a potential or imagined loss (suspicious jealousy) or an actual loss (fait accompli jealousy) (Miller & Benz, 2013). The situation in which the perceived threat is felt does not have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. Differences between events and situations that incite jealousy may reflect the appraisals made about the situation and how those appraisals elicit emotions (Scherer et al., 2001). The experience of jealousy may involve cognition, emotion, and motivation. Behaviour may follow these factors directly; however, it is not necessary and is not the same as experiencing jealousy. Maya's reaction of feeling jealous illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as envy. Jealousy aligns with the above-given definition of a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person. Envy is separate and distinct. Envy is generally a negative emotion associated with wanting or desiring what someone else has. Envy can involve anything, such as a physical item, wealth, success, power, or a trait or quality. A distinction between jealousy and envy, as demonstrated in Table 1, is that jealousy is concerned with a threat or loss, whilst envy is concerned with wanting to gain something. Several other emotions may accompany jealousy; however, they are not interchangeable, as jealousy is its own unique emotion. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful? === Experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. The significance of jealousy may depend partly on how you interpret the experience and how you express it. An important point to note is that emotions do not equal behaviour. Feeling jealous, or even imagining behaving based on that jealousy, does not mean an individual is acting jealously. Jealousy is not always irrational or out of the blue; often, it stems from somewhere, so the emotion can have benefits. Dillon (2013) wrote that " beginning in infancy, humans display reactivity toward potential threats that can affect their care which is connected to their ability to thrive" and that "reactivity in the form of jealousy, serves to regain attention and care". This shows that jealousy can have an adaptive or positive function, potentially acting as an information signal, motivating attention toward a relationship concern, motivating relationship-protective behaviour, or prompting communication. In contrast to jealousy's potential positive outcomes, it can also prompt maladaptive responses, including conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour (Elphinston et al., 2013).  <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to stem from relationship events alone. Instead, it can stem from the interaction among perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with another person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening. Threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. perceived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * Maya's interpretation: Alex's messages to Joan are ambiguous, however Maya interprets it as potentially threatening === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] er96pxgi0aiftaoioogt8hnnlh1cwvi 2830380 2830374 2026-09-02T04:21:30Z U3279062 3106301 wrote up percived relationship threat section GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === As previously outlined, jealousy is a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important relationship. Romantic jealousy is a subtype of jealousy that concerns individuals in a romantic or intimate relationship. In a romantic relationship, the bond between the individuals involved is what is threatened, whether by a potential or imagined loss (suspicious jealousy) or an actual loss (fait accompli jealousy) (Miller & Benz, 2013). The situation in which the perceived threat is felt does not have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. Differences between events and situations that incite jealousy may reflect the appraisals made about the situation and how those appraisals elicit emotions (Scherer et al., 2001). The experience of jealousy may involve cognition, emotion, and motivation. Behaviour may follow these factors directly; however, it is not necessary and is not the same as experiencing jealousy. Maya's reaction of feeling jealous illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as envy. Jealousy aligns with the above-given definition of a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person. Envy is separate and distinct. Envy is generally a negative emotion associated with wanting or desiring what someone else has. Envy can involve anything, such as a physical item, wealth, success, power, or a trait or quality. A distinction between jealousy and envy, as demonstrated in Table 1, is that jealousy is concerned with a threat or loss, whilst envy is concerned with wanting to gain something. Several other emotions may accompany jealousy; however, they are not interchangeable, as jealousy is its own unique emotion. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful? === Experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. The significance of jealousy may depend partly on how you interpret the experience and how you express it. An important point to note is that emotions do not equal behaviour. Feeling jealous, or even imagining behaving based on that jealousy, does not mean an individual is acting jealously. Jealousy is not always irrational or out of the blue; often, it stems from somewhere, so the emotion can have benefits. Dillon (2013) wrote that " beginning in infancy, humans display reactivity toward potential threats that can affect their care which is connected to their ability to thrive" and that "reactivity in the form of jealousy, serves to regain attention and care". This shows that jealousy can have an adaptive or positive function, potentially acting as an information signal, motivating attention toward a relationship concern, motivating relationship-protective behaviour, or prompting communication. In contrast to jealousy's potential positive outcomes, it can also prompt maladaptive responses, including conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour (Elphinston et al., 2013).  <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to stem from relationship events alone. Instead, it can stem from the interaction among perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when people appraise them as threatening to a valued relationship. A potential threat is not automatically a psychological threat. A partner interacting with another person may not provoke jealousy, and the interaction becomes important only when interpreted as threatening (Martínez-León et al., 2017), which can involve many types of threat. Cognitive appraisal plays a central role in eliciting threat and challenge responses like jealousy, as it involves emotional judgements and assessments (McEachrane, 2009; Tomaka et al., 1997). Appraisals contribute to emotional responses by helping someone interpret what they are experiencing.   === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) (very small section) * case study: Mayas attachment related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationship === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] qcdekonybyjpxlm2bllato8w4kkts1e 2830382 2830380 2026-09-02T04:32:33Z U3279062 3106301 wrote up attachment and relationship security GenAi (ChatGPT, GPT5.6-Luna ) was used in assisting with brainstorming and structuring base concept for this edit https://chatgpt.com/share/6a8ab5a8-8fc8-83ec-90e0-cfd35742e424 2830382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya has been in a committed romantic relationship for 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya suddenly feels jealous. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous event can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1). What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. Romantic [[wikipedia:Jealousy|Jealousy]] involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat can be real or imagined, perceived through the presence of a rival, or felt through fear of loss (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025). In jealousy, [[wikipedia:Interpretation_(logic)|interpretation]] and [[wikipedia:Perception|perception]] play important roles. The onset and experiences of romantic jealousy can vary significantly between individuals because individual differences (such as gender and sexual orientation) and social differences (such as relationship status and type) shape how people interact and respond in any given situation (Valentova et al., 2020). Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, and it is often associated with [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996). The feeling of jealousy alone does not necessarily determine behaviour; however, the different responses drawn from the emotion can have different consequences for romantic relationships, with romantic jealousy often being tied to damaging effects (Elphinston et al., 2013) Understanding jealousy is important for managing the emotion and its consequences, as it can help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Understanding, attention, regulation, and constructing responses are all important steps in behaviour change (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) and can help manage jealousy.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is romantic jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes, including [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|attachment]] and behaviour (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Jealousy is not just a single feeling felt in response to one particular event. It can be an emotion that is tied to other feelings in response to many scenarios. Individuals can interpret similar situations differently; thus, jealousy is unique to each person. It is important to understand what jealousy is, how it connects to other emotions, and the influence it can have on an individual or relationship. === Defining romantic jealousy === As previously outlined, jealousy is a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important relationship. Romantic jealousy is a subtype of jealousy that concerns individuals in a romantic or intimate relationship. In a romantic relationship, the bond between the individuals involved is what is threatened, whether by a potential or imagined loss (suspicious jealousy) or an actual loss (fait accompli jealousy) (Miller & Benz, 2013). The situation in which the perceived threat is felt does not have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. Differences between events and situations that incite jealousy may reflect the appraisals made about the situation and how those appraisals elicit emotions (Scherer et al., 2001). The experience of jealousy may involve cognition, emotion, and motivation. Behaviour may follow these factors directly; however, it is not necessary and is not the same as experiencing jealousy. Maya's reaction of feeling jealous illustrates how the meaning attributed to an ambiguous event can contribute to jealousy. === Jealousy and related emotional experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as envy. Jealousy aligns with the above-given definition of a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person. Envy is separate and distinct. Envy is generally a negative emotion associated with wanting or desiring what someone else has. Envy can involve anything, such as a physical item, wealth, success, power, or a trait or quality. A distinction between jealousy and envy, as demonstrated in Table 1, is that jealousy is concerned with a threat or loss, whilst envy is concerned with wanting to gain something. Several other emotions may accompany jealousy; however, they are not interchangeable, as jealousy is its own unique emotion. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is jealousy inherently harmful? === Experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. The significance of jealousy may depend partly on how you interpret the experience and how you express it. An important point to note is that emotions do not equal behaviour. Feeling jealous, or even imagining behaving based on that jealousy, does not mean an individual is acting jealously. Jealousy is not always irrational or out of the blue; often, it stems from somewhere, so the emotion can have benefits. Dillon (2013) wrote that " beginning in infancy, humans display reactivity toward potential threats that can affect their care which is connected to their ability to thrive" and that "reactivity in the form of jealousy, serves to regain attention and care". This shows that jealousy can have an adaptive or positive function, potentially acting as an information signal, motivating attention toward a relationship concern, motivating relationship-protective behaviour, or prompting communication. In contrast to jealousy's potential positive outcomes, it can also prompt maladaptive responses, including conflict, suspicion, and controlling behaviour (Elphinston et al., 2013).  <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why does romantic jealousy occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to stem from relationship events alone. Instead, it can stem from the interaction among perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. === Perceived relationship threat and cognitive appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when people appraise them as threatening to a valued relationship. A potential threat is not automatically a psychological threat. A partner interacting with another person may not provoke jealousy, and the interaction becomes important only when interpreted as threatening (Martínez-León et al., 2017), which can involve many types of threat. Cognitive appraisal plays a central role in eliciting threat and challenge responses like jealousy, as it involves emotional judgements and assessments (McEachrane, 2009; Tomaka et al., 1997). Appraisals contribute to emotional responses by helping someone interpret what they are experiencing.   === Attachment and relationship security === Attachment theory offers one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and how they experience and express jealousy. Humans are born with attachment behaviours that help ensure proximity to important figures who can provide protection (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008). Romantic relationships can function as important attachments; however, people differ in expectations about what attachments can look like, which can influence how they respond to relationship threat (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997). Some people hold an anxious attachment style, which is defined as "uncertainty regarding the availability of attachment figures" (Campbell & Marshall, 2011), which can increase sensitivity to loss or threat and make jealous behaviours stronger. Avoidant attachment style is defined as "an active fear of closeness" (Bartholomew, 1990), which can influence how jealousy is expressed or managed. Maya's attachment-related expectations could influence how sensitive she is to ambiguous relationships, particularly if she has an anxious attachment style. === Relationship context and uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * any recent conflict, unclear boundaries, and uncertainty could make Alex's messages to Joan feel more threatening. jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * individual differences such as self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, previous relationship experiences and personality may influence sensitivity to perceived relationship threat and responses to jealousy. * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted * gender and culture (Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) from social post === Integrated explanations === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees the same message from Alex to Joan in two different circumstances Scenario A: Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how Alex has openly discussed the friendship. Scenario B: Maya and Alex recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries.{{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy?: |type="()"} - The message automatically created jealousy. - Jealousy depends only on personality. + The meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. - One person must be irrational. </quiz> [[File:Relationship event.png|thumb|Figure 2. Model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses]] taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. *Different explanatory perspectives may operate at different levels of the same psychological process. Appraisal theory may explain how a situation becomes psychologically threatening. attachment theory helps explain why people may differ in their expectations and sensitivity to relationship threat. Individual differences explains why people facing similar circumstances may nevertheless respond differently. *add figure * add learning feature * feature box * quiz: == What are the impacts of romantic jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive impacts === Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship. * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018) * repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) explain that appraisal can continue after jealousy is experienced, with attention, interpretation, and rumination becoming focused on relationship relevant information, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. === Emotional impacts === The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. * jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005) * emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) * emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988) * emotion isn't automatically dysfunctional (unpleasant emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013) as established earlier, experiencing an unpleasant emotion does not necessarily make the emotion dysfunctional. === Behavioural responses === The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. * jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002) * as established earlier, jealousy does not determine a single behavioural respons * constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again * less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) * these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. She experiences jealousy. Response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses?: |type="()"} - Jealousy was only present in response B. - constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy. + The emotional experience is similar, while the behavioural response differs. - Jealousy always produces controlling behaviour. </quiz> === Relationship consequences === Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. * communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) * trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) again * relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite (Elphinston et al., 2013) again jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed === When can jealousy be harmful? === romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. * intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful) * persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) * behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. * impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023) * jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. == How can romantic jealousy be managed? == managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. === Recognising the emotional response === the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. * identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012) * validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful * cite (Leahy & Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it === Evaluating the perceived threat === after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat. [[File:Relationship event (1).png|thumb|Figure 3. Maya's progression of thoughts on situation]] * cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * distinguish evidence from assumption (figure 3. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. * consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy * avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) === Communication and relationship management === when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. * communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent) * discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. * communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) * maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' === Emotion regulation === [[File:Emotional regulation flowchart.pdf|thumb|Figure 4. Emotional regulation flow chart]] emotion regulation can help individuals manage the intensity of jealousy and its associated emotions, creating space to choose responses that are consistent with their longer term relationship goals. * regulation is not suppression (suppression is 'i shouldn't feel this' regulation is 'i am feeling this but i can still decide how i respond) cite (Gross, 2008) * add mindfulness (mindfulness supports emotional awareness) (maybe don't keep or keep short) * cognitive reappraisal (lightly reconnect to previous sections about rethinking meanings of situations cognitively) * behavioural pause (when emotional arousal is high, taking time before communicating can help prevent impulsive behaviour) Figure 4 * align regulation with relationship goals (what does the person ultimately want, potential goal is to protect the relationship, then which response is most likely to move toward that goal) === When the threat is real === managing jealousy does not require dismissing every perceived threat as irrational. when evidence indicates a genuine relationship problem, appropriate management involves addressing the underlying issue rather than simply regulating the emotion away. * sometimes the perceived threat is real ( a partner could be violating a boundary, there may be infidelity, deception, repeated inappropriate behavior or a breakdown in trust) cite (Fincham & May, 2017) * emotional regulation doesn't mean tolerating mistreatment (if a persons jealousy is responding to genuine evidence of betrayal or boundary violation, simply telling them to 'manage their jealousy' could cause them to miss the underlying relationship problem) * communicate and negotiate (if threat is real discuss what happened, clarify boundaries, communicate needs, decide what changes are necessary and determine if trust can be repaired,) cite (Abrahamson et al., 2011) * decide what is within ones control (you cant control your partners choices, but you can control how you respond) * professional support (when jealousy becomes persistent, severe, highly distressing, associated with controlling or aggressive behaviour, or is severely impairing relationship functioning, professional psychological support may help) effective management requires both emotional regulation and accurate threat detection. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Scenario Maya has talked to Alex about what she saw on his phone. Alex explains that Joan was just a work friend and there was no romantic relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {Maya still feels jealous; Which response best reflects the approach described above?: |type="()"} - Suppress the jealousy because the threat has been disproven. - Check Alex's phone until Maya feels completely certain. + Acknowledge the emotion, consider the evidence, tolerate some uncertainty and choose a constructive response. - Assume that feeling jealous must mean something is wrong. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|Cognitive appraisal]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Love styles and relationships|Love styles and relationships]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Threat|Threat]] (Wikipedia) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abrahamson, I., Hussain, R., Khan, A., & Schofield, M. J. (2011). What helps couples rebuild their relationship after infidelity? Journal of Family Issues, 33(11), 1494–1519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11424257 Attridge, M. (2013). Jealousy and relationship closeness. SAGE Open, 3(1), 215824401347605. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013476054 Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Brenner, G. (2018, October 19). The six faces of jealousy {{!}} psychology today. Www.Psychologytoday.Com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201810/the-six-faces-jealousy Bush, C. R., Bush, J. P., & Jennings, J. (1988). Effects of jealousy threats on relationship perceptions and emotions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588053002 Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x Dillon, L. (2013). Functional aspects of jealousy across the lifespan. Human Ethology, 28(2). Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002 Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P., & Fitzgerald, J. (2013). Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: The costs of rumination. Western Journal of Communication, 77(3), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.770161 Fincham, F. D, & May, R. W. (2017). Infidelity in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13(4), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008 Fiske, A. P. (2002). Socio-moral emotions motivate action to sustain relationships. Self and Identity, 1(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319357 Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–513). Guerrero, L. K., & Andersen, P. A. (1996). Jealousy experience and expression in romantic relationships. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50008-4Guerrero, L. K., Trost, M. R., & Yoshimura, S. M. (2005). Romantic jealousy: Emotions and communicative responses. Personal Relationships, 12(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00113.x Karakoçoğlu, N., & Hasdağ, D. (2025). Romantic jealousy: A comprehensive review. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 17(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1454542 KNOBLOCH, L. K., SOLOMON, D. H., & CRUZ, M. G. (2001). The role of relationship development and attachment in the experience of romantic jealousy. Personal Relationships, 8(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00036.x Leahy, R. L., & Tirch, D. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy for jealousy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.1.18 Leite, Ã., Silva, B., Vilela, B., Rodrigues, I., Fernandes, J., Romão, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2024). Measurement invariance of the multidimensional jealousy scale and quality of relationships inventory (friend). Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010044 Martínez-León, N., Peña, J., Salazar, H., García, A., & Sierra, J. (2017). APA PsycNet. In psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47692-008 McEachrane, M. (2009). Emotion, meaning, and appraisal theory. Theory & Psychology, 19(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354308101418 Miller, R. L., & Benz, J. (2013). Jealousy, romantic. The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp311 Mindful Health Solutions. (2023, April 7). The deeper meaning of jealousy: A psychological exploration. Mindful Health Solutions. https://mindfulhealthsolutions.com/the-deeper-meaning-of-jealousy-a-psychological-exploration/ Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press, USA. Sharpsteen, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). Romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 627–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.627 Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). An overview of adult attachment theory. https://cheleyntema.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Mikulincer-and-Shaver-2008-Overview-of-attachment-.pdf Szczygieł, D., Buczny, J., & Bazińska, R. (2012). Emotion regulation and emotional information processing: The moderating effect of emotional awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.005 Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109805 Yoshimura, S. M. (2004). Emotional and behavioral responses to romantic jealousy expressions. Communication Reports, 17(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934210409389378 Young, V. J., Burke, T. J., & Curran, M. A. (2019). Interpersonal effects of health-related social control: Positive and negative influence, partner health transformations, and relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11–12), 3986–4004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519846565 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/emotions Emotions] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships/healthy-relationships Happy couples] (American Psychological Association) * [https://services.unimelb.edu.au/counsel/resources/relationships/intimate-relationships Intimate relationships] (University of Melbourne) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/marriage-relationships Marriage and relationships] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/physical-abuse-violence/relationships-dating-love-sex Violence in relationships] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] el1uekvre0q73hj6coddtu4j0jwye8t 0 331216 2830217 2828885 2026-09-01T15:14:34Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830217 wikitext text/x-wiki {{div style="text-align:center"|1= = Mood and Cognitive Performance = '''How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem-solving?''' }} ==Overview== <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Imagine two students revising for the same exam. One arrives at the library on a high after a good night's sleep and time with friends; the other arrives anxious, having slept badly after an argument. Even though they study the same material for the same length of time, psychological science suggests their experience of studying — what they notice, what they remember, and how well they solve problems — may look quite different (see Figure 1). </div> Mood is often treated as a private, background feeling with little practical relevance. However, a mood is not just how something feels from the inside — it changes how the mind works. Unlike an emotion, which is a short-lived feeling response tied to a specific event, a mood lasts longer and may have no clear cause (Reeve, 2024). Because moods persist, they can systematically bias attention, memory, and problem-solving across a whole day or study session — with real consequences for exam performance, workplace decisions, and everyday wellbeing. Psychological science offers well-tested theories and experiments that explain exactly how and why this happens. <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Focus Questions: ●What is the difference between mood and emotion? ●How does mood affect attention? ●How does mood affect memory? ●How does mood affect problem-solving? ●How can this knowledge be used to improve everyday thinking and performance? </div> == What is the difference between mood and emotion? == * Emotions are brief and object-focused (e.g., fear of a specific dog); moods are longer-lasting and diffuse (e.g., feeling flat all afternoon for no obvious reason) (Reeve, 2024). * Psychologists often describe affective states along two broad dimensions — valence (pleasant–unpleasant) and arousal (activated–deactivated) — meaning mood is not simply “good” or “bad” but also varies in energy level (Russell, 1980). * Because mood is long-lasting, it acts like a lens present during most of what a person thinks about during that period, rather than a brief reaction to one triggering event (Forgas, 1995). Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {True or False: A mood is usually triggered by one specific, identifiable event, in the same way an emotion is. |type="()"} - True + False — moods are longer-lasting and often have no single clear cause. </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect attention? == * Broadening effect of positive mood: Fredrickson's (1998) broaden-and-build theory proposes that positive emotions and moods broaden a person's momentary “thought-action repertoire,” widening attention and the range of ideas that come to mind, whereas negative states narrow it toward specific, urgent responses. * Evidence for broadened attentional scope: using global–local visual attention tasks, Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that participants in a positive mood were more likely to attend to the global, “big picture” pattern of a stimulus, while neutral or negative moods biased attention toward local, detailed features. * Anxiety narrows and redirects attention toward threat: attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007) proposes that anxiety impairs the goal-directed attentional system while increasing the influence of the reflexive, stimulus-driven system, making anxious individuals more likely to have attention automatically captured by threatening or worrying information. Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {According to attentional control theory, anxiety mainly impairs which attentional system? |type="()"} - (a) The reflexive, stimulus-driven system + (b) The goal-directed system - (c) Neither system </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect memory? == * Mood-state-dependent memory: Bower (1981) showed, using hypnotically induced happy or sad moods, that people recall more information when their mood at recall matches their mood at encoding. * Mood-congruent memory: Bower (1981) also demonstrated that people are more likely to notice, learn, and recall information that matches their current mood (e.g., a sad person recalling more sad autobiographical memories). * Associative network explanation: Bower (1981) proposed that mood acts as a memory “node” in an associative network, so an active mood spreads activation to related, congruent memories, making them easier to retrieve than incongruent ones. * A boundary condition: the Affect Infusion Model (Forgas, 1995) suggests mood effects on memory are strongest for complex, open-ended (“constructive”) tasks requiring elaboration, and weaker for simple, well-rehearsed tasks. Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {True or False: A mood is usually triggered by one specific, identifiable event, in the same way an emotion is. |type="()"} - True + False — moods are longer-lasting and often have no single clear cause. </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect problem solving? == * Positive mood facilitates creative problem solving: Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) found that inducing positive affect (via a comedy film clip or a small gift of candy) improved performance on tasks requiring creative insight, such as Duncker's candle problem and the Remote Associates Test. * Mechanism — flexible categorisation: Isen et al. (1987) argued that positive affect increases cognitive flexibility, helping people see unusual connections between ideas. * Negative mood and systematic processing: the Affect Infusion Model suggests negative moods tend to promote more careful, detail-oriented, systematic (“substantive”) processing, which can improve accuracy on analytical tasks even though it reduces flexibility (Forgas, 1995). * Anxiety's cost to working memory: attentional control theory proposes anxiety consumes central executive working-memory resources with worry-related thoughts, particularly impairing performance on tasks with high working-memory demands (Eysenck et al., 2007). Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which classic task did Isen et al. (1987) use to test creative problem solving? |type="()"} - (a) The Stroop task + (b) Duncker's candle problem - (c) The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test </quiz> </div> == How can this knowledge improve everyday thinking and performance? == * Match the mood to the task: since positive mood supports open-ended, creative tasks while negative/neutral mood can support detail-focused analytical tasks (Forgas, 1995), it may help to schedule brainstorming for upbeat moments and save careful proofreading for a calmer state. * Watch for mood-congruent bias in recall: because current mood biases what is remembered (Bower, 1981), a stressed student revising for an exam might disproportionately recall past study failures — a memory bias rather than an accurate reflection of overall performance. * Manage anxiety before high-stakes tasks: emotion regulation — noticing and naming an emotion, pausing before acting, and regulating breathing (Reeve, 2024) — may help free up the working-memory resources anxiety otherwise consumes (Eysenck et al., 2007), supporting better performance on complex tasks like exams or presentations. '''Table 1''' ''Summary of positive versus negative mood effects on attention, memory, and problem solving'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! '''Cognitive process'''!! Positive Mood !! Negative Mood / Anxiety |- | Attention || Broadened, “big picture” focus (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) || Narrowed, threat-focused, harder to control (Eysenck et al., 2007) |- | Memory || Mood-congruent recall of positive material (Bower, 1981) || Mood-congruent recall of negative material (Bower, 1981) |- |Problem Solving |More flexible, creative, associative (Isen et al., 1987) |More systematic/detail-focused but less flexible; working memory strained under anxiety (Forgas, 1995; Eysenck et al., 2007) |} <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Case Study: Maya has a group assignment due in two days and a job interview tomorrow. The night before the interview she feels anxious and finds her attention repeatedly drawn to worst-case scenarios rather than her interview notes — attention captured by threat-relevant information (Eysenck et al., 2007). After the interview goes well, she feels upbeat, and finds it much easier to brainstorm creative angles for her assignment — positive mood supporting flexible, associative thinking (Isen et al., 1987). Quiz: <quiz display=simple> {True or False: Being in a good mood always improves performance on every type of task. |type="()"} - True + False — the Affect Infusion Model shows negative mood can improve accuracy on careful, systematic tasks. </quiz> </div> == Figure == [[File:A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving.png|thumb|center|700px|A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving]] Figure 1. A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving, based on Bower (1981), Forgas (1995), Fredrickson (1998), and Eysenck et al. (2007). ==Conclusion== * Mood systematically shapes what people attend to, what they remember, and how they approach problems — it is not merely a passive background feeling (Bower, 1981; Fredrickson, 1998). * Positive moods broaden attention and support flexible, creative problem solving (Fredrickson, 1998; Isen et al., 1987), while negative moods and anxiety narrow attention toward threat, bias memory toward congruent negative material, and strain the working memory needed for complex problem solving (Eysenck et al., 2007). * These effects are not simply “good mood = better thinking” — the Affect Infusion Model (Forgas, 1995) shows negative mood can support more careful, systematic processing on some tasks. * Practically, this means timing creative work for upbeat moments, recognising mood-congruent memory bias for what it is, and using brief emotion-regulation strategies before cognitively demanding, high-stakes tasks (Reeve, 2024). ==References== Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.2.129 Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 39–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.39 Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122–1131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122 Reeve, J. (2024). Understanding motivation and emotion (8th ed.). Wiley. ==External links== * [https://positivepsychology.com/broaden-build-theory/ Broaden-and-Build Theory explainer] (Positive Psychology) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognitive]] hr3mozzldjqmrh898xhtft6nabaehdp 2830218 2830217 2026-09-01T15:14:57Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830218 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center"|1= = Mood and Cognitive Performance = '''How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem-solving?''' </div> ==Overview== <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Imagine two students revising for the same exam. One arrives at the library on a high after a good night's sleep and time with friends; the other arrives anxious, having slept badly after an argument. Even though they study the same material for the same length of time, psychological science suggests their experience of studying — what they notice, what they remember, and how well they solve problems — may look quite different (see Figure 1). </div> Mood is often treated as a private, background feeling with little practical relevance. However, a mood is not just how something feels from the inside — it changes how the mind works. Unlike an emotion, which is a short-lived feeling response tied to a specific event, a mood lasts longer and may have no clear cause (Reeve, 2024). Because moods persist, they can systematically bias attention, memory, and problem-solving across a whole day or study session — with real consequences for exam performance, workplace decisions, and everyday wellbeing. Psychological science offers well-tested theories and experiments that explain exactly how and why this happens. <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Focus Questions: ●What is the difference between mood and emotion? ●How does mood affect attention? ●How does mood affect memory? ●How does mood affect problem-solving? ●How can this knowledge be used to improve everyday thinking and performance? </div> == What is the difference between mood and emotion? == * Emotions are brief and object-focused (e.g., fear of a specific dog); moods are longer-lasting and diffuse (e.g., feeling flat all afternoon for no obvious reason) (Reeve, 2024). * Psychologists often describe affective states along two broad dimensions — valence (pleasant–unpleasant) and arousal (activated–deactivated) — meaning mood is not simply “good” or “bad” but also varies in energy level (Russell, 1980). * Because mood is long-lasting, it acts like a lens present during most of what a person thinks about during that period, rather than a brief reaction to one triggering event (Forgas, 1995). Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {True or False: A mood is usually triggered by one specific, identifiable event, in the same way an emotion is. |type="()"} - True + False — moods are longer-lasting and often have no single clear cause. </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect attention? == * Broadening effect of positive mood: Fredrickson's (1998) broaden-and-build theory proposes that positive emotions and moods broaden a person's momentary “thought-action repertoire,” widening attention and the range of ideas that come to mind, whereas negative states narrow it toward specific, urgent responses. * Evidence for broadened attentional scope: using global–local visual attention tasks, Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that participants in a positive mood were more likely to attend to the global, “big picture” pattern of a stimulus, while neutral or negative moods biased attention toward local, detailed features. * Anxiety narrows and redirects attention toward threat: attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007) proposes that anxiety impairs the goal-directed attentional system while increasing the influence of the reflexive, stimulus-driven system, making anxious individuals more likely to have attention automatically captured by threatening or worrying information. Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {According to attentional control theory, anxiety mainly impairs which attentional system? |type="()"} - (a) The reflexive, stimulus-driven system + (b) The goal-directed system - (c) Neither system </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect memory? == * Mood-state-dependent memory: Bower (1981) showed, using hypnotically induced happy or sad moods, that people recall more information when their mood at recall matches their mood at encoding. * Mood-congruent memory: Bower (1981) also demonstrated that people are more likely to notice, learn, and recall information that matches their current mood (e.g., a sad person recalling more sad autobiographical memories). * Associative network explanation: Bower (1981) proposed that mood acts as a memory “node” in an associative network, so an active mood spreads activation to related, congruent memories, making them easier to retrieve than incongruent ones. * A boundary condition: the Affect Infusion Model (Forgas, 1995) suggests mood effects on memory are strongest for complex, open-ended (“constructive”) tasks requiring elaboration, and weaker for simple, well-rehearsed tasks. Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {True or False: A mood is usually triggered by one specific, identifiable event, in the same way an emotion is. |type="()"} - True + False — moods are longer-lasting and often have no single clear cause. </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect problem solving? == * Positive mood facilitates creative problem solving: Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) found that inducing positive affect (via a comedy film clip or a small gift of candy) improved performance on tasks requiring creative insight, such as Duncker's candle problem and the Remote Associates Test. * Mechanism — flexible categorisation: Isen et al. (1987) argued that positive affect increases cognitive flexibility, helping people see unusual connections between ideas. * Negative mood and systematic processing: the Affect Infusion Model suggests negative moods tend to promote more careful, detail-oriented, systematic (“substantive”) processing, which can improve accuracy on analytical tasks even though it reduces flexibility (Forgas, 1995). * Anxiety's cost to working memory: attentional control theory proposes anxiety consumes central executive working-memory resources with worry-related thoughts, particularly impairing performance on tasks with high working-memory demands (Eysenck et al., 2007). Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which classic task did Isen et al. (1987) use to test creative problem solving? |type="()"} - (a) The Stroop task + (b) Duncker's candle problem - (c) The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test </quiz> </div> == How can this knowledge improve everyday thinking and performance? == * Match the mood to the task: since positive mood supports open-ended, creative tasks while negative/neutral mood can support detail-focused analytical tasks (Forgas, 1995), it may help to schedule brainstorming for upbeat moments and save careful proofreading for a calmer state. * Watch for mood-congruent bias in recall: because current mood biases what is remembered (Bower, 1981), a stressed student revising for an exam might disproportionately recall past study failures — a memory bias rather than an accurate reflection of overall performance. * Manage anxiety before high-stakes tasks: emotion regulation — noticing and naming an emotion, pausing before acting, and regulating breathing (Reeve, 2024) — may help free up the working-memory resources anxiety otherwise consumes (Eysenck et al., 2007), supporting better performance on complex tasks like exams or presentations. '''Table 1''' ''Summary of positive versus negative mood effects on attention, memory, and problem solving'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! '''Cognitive process'''!! Positive Mood !! Negative Mood / Anxiety |- | Attention || Broadened, “big picture” focus (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) || Narrowed, threat-focused, harder to control (Eysenck et al., 2007) |- | Memory || Mood-congruent recall of positive material (Bower, 1981) || Mood-congruent recall of negative material (Bower, 1981) |- |Problem Solving |More flexible, creative, associative (Isen et al., 1987) |More systematic/detail-focused but less flexible; working memory strained under anxiety (Forgas, 1995; Eysenck et al., 2007) |} <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Case Study: Maya has a group assignment due in two days and a job interview tomorrow. The night before the interview she feels anxious and finds her attention repeatedly drawn to worst-case scenarios rather than her interview notes — attention captured by threat-relevant information (Eysenck et al., 2007). After the interview goes well, she feels upbeat, and finds it much easier to brainstorm creative angles for her assignment — positive mood supporting flexible, associative thinking (Isen et al., 1987). Quiz: <quiz display=simple> {True or False: Being in a good mood always improves performance on every type of task. |type="()"} - True + False — the Affect Infusion Model shows negative mood can improve accuracy on careful, systematic tasks. </quiz> </div> == Figure == [[File:A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving.png|thumb|center|700px|A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving]] Figure 1. A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving, based on Bower (1981), Forgas (1995), Fredrickson (1998), and Eysenck et al. (2007). ==Conclusion== * Mood systematically shapes what people attend to, what they remember, and how they approach problems — it is not merely a passive background feeling (Bower, 1981; Fredrickson, 1998). * Positive moods broaden attention and support flexible, creative problem solving (Fredrickson, 1998; Isen et al., 1987), while negative moods and anxiety narrow attention toward threat, bias memory toward congruent negative material, and strain the working memory needed for complex problem solving (Eysenck et al., 2007). * These effects are not simply “good mood = better thinking” — the Affect Infusion Model (Forgas, 1995) shows negative mood can support more careful, systematic processing on some tasks. * Practically, this means timing creative work for upbeat moments, recognising mood-congruent memory bias for what it is, and using brief emotion-regulation strategies before cognitively demanding, high-stakes tasks (Reeve, 2024). ==References== Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.2.129 Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 39–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.39 Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122–1131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122 Reeve, J. (2024). Understanding motivation and emotion (8th ed.). Wiley. ==External links== * [https://positivepsychology.com/broaden-build-theory/ Broaden-and-Build Theory explainer] (Positive Psychology) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognitive]] odljih0iw1ja2l9sj4ax73egvlminzt 2830219 2830218 2026-09-01T15:15:09Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830219 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center"> = Mood and Cognitive Performance = '''How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem-solving?''' </div> ==Overview== <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Imagine two students revising for the same exam. One arrives at the library on a high after a good night's sleep and time with friends; the other arrives anxious, having slept badly after an argument. Even though they study the same material for the same length of time, psychological science suggests their experience of studying — what they notice, what they remember, and how well they solve problems — may look quite different (see Figure 1). </div> Mood is often treated as a private, background feeling with little practical relevance. However, a mood is not just how something feels from the inside — it changes how the mind works. Unlike an emotion, which is a short-lived feeling response tied to a specific event, a mood lasts longer and may have no clear cause (Reeve, 2024). Because moods persist, they can systematically bias attention, memory, and problem-solving across a whole day or study session — with real consequences for exam performance, workplace decisions, and everyday wellbeing. Psychological science offers well-tested theories and experiments that explain exactly how and why this happens. <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Focus Questions: ●What is the difference between mood and emotion? ●How does mood affect attention? ●How does mood affect memory? ●How does mood affect problem-solving? ●How can this knowledge be used to improve everyday thinking and performance? </div> == What is the difference between mood and emotion? == * Emotions are brief and object-focused (e.g., fear of a specific dog); moods are longer-lasting and diffuse (e.g., feeling flat all afternoon for no obvious reason) (Reeve, 2024). * Psychologists often describe affective states along two broad dimensions — valence (pleasant–unpleasant) and arousal (activated–deactivated) — meaning mood is not simply “good” or “bad” but also varies in energy level (Russell, 1980). * Because mood is long-lasting, it acts like a lens present during most of what a person thinks about during that period, rather than a brief reaction to one triggering event (Forgas, 1995). Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {True or False: A mood is usually triggered by one specific, identifiable event, in the same way an emotion is. |type="()"} - True + False — moods are longer-lasting and often have no single clear cause. </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect attention? == * Broadening effect of positive mood: Fredrickson's (1998) broaden-and-build theory proposes that positive emotions and moods broaden a person's momentary “thought-action repertoire,” widening attention and the range of ideas that come to mind, whereas negative states narrow it toward specific, urgent responses. * Evidence for broadened attentional scope: using global–local visual attention tasks, Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that participants in a positive mood were more likely to attend to the global, “big picture” pattern of a stimulus, while neutral or negative moods biased attention toward local, detailed features. * Anxiety narrows and redirects attention toward threat: attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007) proposes that anxiety impairs the goal-directed attentional system while increasing the influence of the reflexive, stimulus-driven system, making anxious individuals more likely to have attention automatically captured by threatening or worrying information. Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {According to attentional control theory, anxiety mainly impairs which attentional system? |type="()"} - (a) The reflexive, stimulus-driven system + (b) The goal-directed system - (c) Neither system </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect memory? == * Mood-state-dependent memory: Bower (1981) showed, using hypnotically induced happy or sad moods, that people recall more information when their mood at recall matches their mood at encoding. * Mood-congruent memory: Bower (1981) also demonstrated that people are more likely to notice, learn, and recall information that matches their current mood (e.g., a sad person recalling more sad autobiographical memories). * Associative network explanation: Bower (1981) proposed that mood acts as a memory “node” in an associative network, so an active mood spreads activation to related, congruent memories, making them easier to retrieve than incongruent ones. * A boundary condition: the Affect Infusion Model (Forgas, 1995) suggests mood effects on memory are strongest for complex, open-ended (“constructive”) tasks requiring elaboration, and weaker for simple, well-rehearsed tasks. Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {True or False: A mood is usually triggered by one specific, identifiable event, in the same way an emotion is. |type="()"} - True + False — moods are longer-lasting and often have no single clear cause. </quiz> </div> == How does mood affect problem solving? == * Positive mood facilitates creative problem solving: Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) found that inducing positive affect (via a comedy film clip or a small gift of candy) improved performance on tasks requiring creative insight, such as Duncker's candle problem and the Remote Associates Test. * Mechanism — flexible categorisation: Isen et al. (1987) argued that positive affect increases cognitive flexibility, helping people see unusual connections between ideas. * Negative mood and systematic processing: the Affect Infusion Model suggests negative moods tend to promote more careful, detail-oriented, systematic (“substantive”) processing, which can improve accuracy on analytical tasks even though it reduces flexibility (Forgas, 1995). * Anxiety's cost to working memory: attentional control theory proposes anxiety consumes central executive working-memory resources with worry-related thoughts, particularly impairing performance on tasks with high working-memory demands (Eysenck et al., 2007). Quiz: <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which classic task did Isen et al. (1987) use to test creative problem solving? |type="()"} - (a) The Stroop task + (b) Duncker's candle problem - (c) The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test </quiz> </div> == How can this knowledge improve everyday thinking and performance? == * Match the mood to the task: since positive mood supports open-ended, creative tasks while negative/neutral mood can support detail-focused analytical tasks (Forgas, 1995), it may help to schedule brainstorming for upbeat moments and save careful proofreading for a calmer state. * Watch for mood-congruent bias in recall: because current mood biases what is remembered (Bower, 1981), a stressed student revising for an exam might disproportionately recall past study failures — a memory bias rather than an accurate reflection of overall performance. * Manage anxiety before high-stakes tasks: emotion regulation — noticing and naming an emotion, pausing before acting, and regulating breathing (Reeve, 2024) — may help free up the working-memory resources anxiety otherwise consumes (Eysenck et al., 2007), supporting better performance on complex tasks like exams or presentations. '''Table 1''' ''Summary of positive versus negative mood effects on attention, memory, and problem solving'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! '''Cognitive process'''!! Positive Mood !! Negative Mood / Anxiety |- | Attention || Broadened, “big picture” focus (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) || Narrowed, threat-focused, harder to control (Eysenck et al., 2007) |- | Memory || Mood-congruent recall of positive material (Bower, 1981) || Mood-congruent recall of negative material (Bower, 1981) |- |Problem Solving |More flexible, creative, associative (Isen et al., 1987) |More systematic/detail-focused but less flexible; working memory strained under anxiety (Forgas, 1995; Eysenck et al., 2007) |} <div style="border: 2px solid #2f7d4a; background-color: rgba(47, 125, 74, 0.16); padding: 12px; border-radius: 6px; color: inherit;"> Case Study: Maya has a group assignment due in two days and a job interview tomorrow. The night before the interview she feels anxious and finds her attention repeatedly drawn to worst-case scenarios rather than her interview notes — attention captured by threat-relevant information (Eysenck et al., 2007). After the interview goes well, she feels upbeat, and finds it much easier to brainstorm creative angles for her assignment — positive mood supporting flexible, associative thinking (Isen et al., 1987). Quiz: <quiz display=simple> {True or False: Being in a good mood always improves performance on every type of task. |type="()"} - True + False — the Affect Infusion Model shows negative mood can improve accuracy on careful, systematic tasks. </quiz> </div> == Figure == [[File:A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving.png|thumb|center|700px|A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving]] Figure 1. A simplified model of how positive and negative mood states are proposed to influence attention, memory, and problem solving, based on Bower (1981), Forgas (1995), Fredrickson (1998), and Eysenck et al. (2007). ==Conclusion== * Mood systematically shapes what people attend to, what they remember, and how they approach problems — it is not merely a passive background feeling (Bower, 1981; Fredrickson, 1998). * Positive moods broaden attention and support flexible, creative problem solving (Fredrickson, 1998; Isen et al., 1987), while negative moods and anxiety narrow attention toward threat, bias memory toward congruent negative material, and strain the working memory needed for complex problem solving (Eysenck et al., 2007). * These effects are not simply “good mood = better thinking” — the Affect Infusion Model (Forgas, 1995) shows negative mood can support more careful, systematic processing on some tasks. * Practically, this means timing creative work for upbeat moments, recognising mood-congruent memory bias for what it is, and using brief emotion-regulation strategies before cognitively demanding, high-stakes tasks (Reeve, 2024). ==References== Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.2.129 Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 39–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.39 Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122–1131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122 Reeve, J. (2024). Understanding motivation and emotion (8th ed.). Wiley. ==External links== * [https://positivepsychology.com/broaden-build-theory/ Broaden-and-Build Theory explainer] (Positive Psychology) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognitive]] b9tmftquzwfs5n52yztillzq8dvv9a1 0 331226 2830221 2828747 2026-09-01T15:17:07Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830221 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians:<br>What are the emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians? }} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} ; Case Study In January of 2021, an unnamed incarcerated Aboriginal woman on remand at the Alexander Maconochie Centre in the ACT was the victim of an alleged strip search performed by four guards in riot gear within view of male detainees (Larkin, 2021). The showing of a woman's sensitive body parts is considered a sacred part of women's business, and has been a part of lore practised for thousands of years (Thompson & Archibald-Binge, 2020). "If women's business is conducted in front of males, cultural shame is likely to be the result. This is extremely distressing and would stay with the woman for a long time," (Thompson & Archibald-Binge, 2020). [[File:Kakadu (AU), Kakadu National Park, Anbangbang Rock Shelter -- 2019 -- 4106.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Emotional wellbeing for Indigenous Australians is viewed as health, connected with the land, culture, and community.]] This chapter explores the social and emotional wellbeing model and the emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians. * Introduction to the problem: Indigenous Australians are incarcerated at a disproportionately high rate, accounting for 37% of all persons in custody as of March 2025 (ABS, 2025). * "Research shows that imprisonment has negative impacts on the physical and mental health of incarcerated individuals, and these impacts persist after release." - (Impacts of Imprisonment | Bugmy Bar Book, 2023) * Incarceration significantly implicates the cultural and relational connections to land and kin which are directly correlational with wellbeing for many Indigenous Australians. * Introduction to the model/theory: Social and Emotional Wellbeing (SEWB) model was developed to support and strengthen Indigenous mental health --> The SEWB model is a holistic, multi-dimensional concept of wellbeing which takes into account the impacts of the history of colonisation (Dudgeon, 2026). * How incarceration negatively impacts Indigenous emotional wellbeing --> which also affects mental health. * The SEWB model recognises that connection to land, sea, culture, and spirituality contribute to wellbeing. * Incarceration affects SEWB domains --> physical separation from family members, restricted cultural practice, removal from country. * Why does this matter? ...Access to culturally safe, responsive, and person-centred services is essential to improving the emotional wellbeing of Indigenous Australians in custody (Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2017). --> Essential that psychological science be informed by Indigenous understandings of wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the relationship between incarceration and the emotional wellbeing of Indigenous Australians? * What is the Social and Emotional Wellbeing (SEWB) model? * How does incarceration affect the domains of social and emotional wellbeing? * What factors improve/support emotional resilience during and after incarceration? * What does the Social and Emotional Wellbeing model contribute that Westernised frameworks don't? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Incarceration and emotional wellbeing== '''Focus question:''' ''What is the relationship between incarceration and the emotional wellbeing of Indigenous Australians?'' ==Social and Emotional Wellbeing (SEWB)== '''Focus question:''' ''What is the Social and Emotional Wellbeing (SEWB) model?'' * The Social and Emotional Wellbeing model is a stepped care model which is dedicated to focalising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing and mental health. [[File:Determinants of social and emotional wellbeing.png|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Determinants of social and emotional wellbeing. Adapted from [Dudgeon & Walker, 2015].]] * The framework highlights the importance of culture as being central to the health and wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. ==How incarceration affects SEWB domains== '''Focus question:''' ''How does incarceration affect the domains of social and emotional wellbeing?'' * colonial impact (colonisation) --> cultural, economic, and social bases of Indigenous lives and health has been significantly impacted by colonialism ("through disease, massacre, dispossession of lands, relocation, forced labor, removal of children, and enforced cultural assimilation.")(Battams et al., 2021) =Connection to community= * Separation * Limited/restrictive nature of visitation * =Connection to country= * Removal from country * Inability to participate or attend (in/to) cultural practices (ceremonies, obligations etc). * Reference to opening case study, not only is incarceration and the criminal justice system preventing cultural agency for Indigenous Australians, but it is complicit in the cultural discrimination of Aboriginal lore and culture (Larkin, 2021). This point is quite direct; further elaborate. * Identity within country and within the land. =Emotional and mental wellbeing= * Direct implications on wellbeing due to incarceration. ==Emotional resilience, and protective factors== '''Focus Question:''' ''What factors improve/support emotional resilience during and after incarceration?'' ==Why the Social and Emotional Wellbeing model?== '''Focus Question:''' ''What does the Social and Emotional Wellbeing model contribute that Westernised frameworks don't?'' * Western definitions of mental health do not align with Aboriginal perspectives of health and wellbeing which endorse a more holistic approach to their conceptualisation (Harrison, 2021). ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Future directions/recommendations== Note: this section could be added to discuss future directions, and ways to improve the emotional wellbeing of Indigenous Australians in custody. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== List [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]] (Wikiversity) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2025). ''Corrective services, Australia, March quarter 2025''. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/corrective-services-australia/latest-release Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2025). ''Social and emotional wellbeing''. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-mental-health-suicide-prevention/social-emotional-wellbeing Battams, S., Delany-Crowe, T., Fisher, M., Wright, L., Krieg, A., McDermott, D., & Baum, F. (2021). Applying crime prevention and health promotion frameworks to the problem of high incarceration rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations: Lessons from a case study from Victoria. ''International Indigenous Policy Journal'', ''12''(2), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2021.12.2.10208 Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. (2017, April 4). ''National strategic framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' mental health and social and emotional wellbeing 2017–2023''. Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. https://healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/key-resources/policies-and-strategies/33834/ Dudgeon, P. (2026, May 26). ''Pat Dudgeon AM FAPS on developing the social and emotional wellbeing model to support Indigenous communities''. Australian Psychological Society. https://psychology.org.au/insights/pat-dudgeon-am-sewb-model Dudgeon, P., & Walker, R. (2015). Decolonising Australian psychology: Discourses, strategies, and practice. ''Journal of Social and Political Psychology'', ''3''(1). https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v3i1.4857 }} ==External links== * [https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-australians/closing-the-gap-targets-key-findings-implications/contents/criminal-justice Closing the Gap targets: Key findings – Criminal justice] (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare) * [https://www.myiacfp.org/the-relationship-between-justice-system-involvement-and-the-social-and-emotional-wellbeing-sewb-of-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-youth/ The relationship between justice system involvement and the social and emotional wellbeing (SEWB) of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth] (IACFP) * [https://bugmybarbook.org.au/chapters/imprisonment/ Imprisonment] (Bugmy Bar Book) * [https://theconversation.com/excessive-strip-searching-shines-light-on-discrimination-of-aboriginal-women-in-the-criminal-justice-system-163969 Excessive strip searching shines light on discrimination of Aboriginal women in the criminal justice system] (The Conversation) * [https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/aboriginal-girl-fights-to-exclude-men-from-seeing-strip-search-footage-20200310-p548pu.html Aboriginal girl fights to exclude men from seeing strip search footage] (Sydney Morning Herald) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]. qx3r79i5rtlpftr91agowgjwxsi343u 0 331262 2830340 2829888 2026-09-02T01:29:53Z U3228742 3005570 /* Making of a dark empath */ updated the dot points 2830340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ==Case study== *A friend discussing their concerns about their friend's long term relationship *They are concerned about the relationship and the person having too much control *The relationship has over taken their life and their partner is slowly diminishing their confidence and self worth {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage * Understanding why and how people use dark empathy is important to preventing and addressing the the concern * Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark triad, theory of mind and the schemas could assist with understanding the motivation behind dark empathy == Dark empathy == * [[Empathy]] is a shared experience of feelings and thoughts while dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing against others * Development of dark empathy '''i'''s when an individual has high levels of dark traits and alongside retained or high cognitive and affective empathy capacity (Gojković et al., 2022) === Types of empathy === Empathy is a large element of emotional intelligence in an understanding and sharing feeling with others<p>There are two types of empathy: * Cognitive empathy - the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain * Affective empathy - physical and emotional sharing of feelings [[File:The Dark Triad Traits.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark triad and subsets of the three elements ]] === The dark triad === * There are three elements to the dark triad: ** Narcissism ** Machiavellianism ** Psychopathy === Making of a dark empath === * Dark empath isn't a psychological diagnosis, yet a term how an individual differences from other diagnosis from the dark triad * Dark empathy is found in individuals with high dark triad traits and cognitive empathy. Cognitive empathy rather than affective empathy allows the individual to understanding emotions and thoughts without having to feel the emotions which in turn makes it easier to manipulate others * It is '''affective dissonance'''—having twisted or contradictory emotional reactions, such as feeling happy when someone else is suffering that is present in those with high dark traits (Gojković et al., 2022) that is a potential indicator of dark empathy *Research demonstrates experiencing trauma as a child where you had to predict and understand other's emotion to keep safe may lead to the develop of dark empathy == Consequences of dark empathy == *The person using dark empathy and those they are manipulating are both impacted by the behaviour and will harm their wellbeing *While the use of empathy may bring people together through a shared emotion and experience, dark empathy isolates from community === Effects on victims of dark empathy === *it will impact their mental health causing chronic anxiety, lower self-esteem and emotional dependency === Outcome for dark empaths === *the control and manipulation is exhausting. It will impact their mental health potentially leading to depression, mood instability, difficulty maintaining long-term relationships and identity confusion == Address dark empathy == *Dark empathy is not easily recognised in others *A narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of schemas to influence others while a dark empath uses their empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions === Regaining themselves: recovering from a dark empathy === *Recognise the patterns used by the dark empath *Prioritise your self and trust your instincts *Set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship *Seek therapy particularly CBT *Seperation from the dark empath === Unravelling from dark empathy === *Recognising and acknowledging the pattern of behaviour of controlling those around them and the impacts on theirs and other’s wellbeing *Attending therapy is the best way to address and understand the behaviours. Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: **Trauma-informed therapy **[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **[[w:Schema_therapy|Schema therapy]] **Emotional regulation and accountability training == Conclusion == * Emotional intelligence does not come with morality * The dark triad is an indicator of dark empathy if individual have high dark traits and affective cognitive empathy * Cognitive empathy and trauma patterns can develop the drive for using dark empathy * Effective identification and therapy will assist with managing an individual using empathy against others ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/dark-triad Dark Triad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 91nqj7y29f16fu61ld6tkqi227bydgk 2830342 2830340 2026-09-02T01:35:30Z U3228742 3005570 /* References */ added references 2830342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ==Case study== *A friend discussing their concerns about their friend's long term relationship *They are concerned about the relationship and the person having too much control *The relationship has over taken their life and their partner is slowly diminishing their confidence and self worth {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage * Understanding why and how people use dark empathy is important to preventing and addressing the the concern * Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark triad, theory of mind and the schemas could assist with understanding the motivation behind dark empathy == Dark empathy == * [[Empathy]] is a shared experience of feelings and thoughts while dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing against others * Development of dark empathy '''i'''s when an individual has high levels of dark traits and alongside retained or high cognitive and affective empathy capacity (Gojković et al., 2022) === Types of empathy === Empathy is a large element of emotional intelligence in an understanding and sharing feeling with others<p>There are two types of empathy: * Cognitive empathy - the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain * Affective empathy - physical and emotional sharing of feelings [[File:The Dark Triad Traits.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark triad and subsets of the three elements ]] === The dark triad === * There are three elements to the dark triad: ** Narcissism ** Machiavellianism ** Psychopathy === Making of a dark empath === * Dark empath isn't a psychological diagnosis, yet a term how an individual differences from other diagnosis from the dark triad * Dark empathy is found in individuals with high dark triad traits and cognitive empathy. Cognitive empathy rather than affective empathy allows the individual to understanding emotions and thoughts without having to feel the emotions which in turn makes it easier to manipulate others * It is '''affective dissonance'''—having twisted or contradictory emotional reactions, such as feeling happy when someone else is suffering that is present in those with high dark traits (Gojković et al., 2022) that is a potential indicator of dark empathy *Research demonstrates experiencing trauma as a child where you had to predict and understand other's emotion to keep safe may lead to the develop of dark empathy == Consequences of dark empathy == *The person using dark empathy and those they are manipulating are both impacted by the behaviour and will harm their wellbeing *While the use of empathy may bring people together through a shared emotion and experience, dark empathy isolates from community === Effects on victims of dark empathy === *it will impact their mental health causing chronic anxiety, lower self-esteem and emotional dependency === Outcome for dark empaths === *the control and manipulation is exhausting. It will impact their mental health potentially leading to depression, mood instability, difficulty maintaining long-term relationships and identity confusion == Address dark empathy == *Dark empathy is not easily recognised in others *A narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of schemas to influence others while a dark empath uses their empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions === Regaining themselves: recovering from a dark empathy === *Recognise the patterns used by the dark empath *Prioritise your self and trust your instincts *Set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship *Seek therapy particularly CBT *Seperation from the dark empath === Unravelling from dark empathy === *Recognising and acknowledging the pattern of behaviour of controlling those around them and the impacts on theirs and other’s wellbeing *Attending therapy is the best way to address and understand the behaviours. Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: **Trauma-informed therapy **[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **[[w:Schema_therapy|Schema therapy]] **Emotional regulation and accountability training == Conclusion == * Emotional intelligence does not come with morality * The dark triad is an indicator of dark empathy if individual have high dark traits and affective cognitive empathy * Cognitive empathy and trauma patterns can develop the drive for using dark empathy * Effective identification and therapy will assist with managing an individual using empathy against others ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mikkelsen, E. N., Geraldi, J., & Clegg, S. (2026). The Dark Side of Empathy and Organization Studies. Organization studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406261459079 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/dark-triad Dark Triad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 3aflahqadug7o981lniq9tzd2hgencu 0 331281 2830216 2828667 2026-09-01T15:13:29Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830216 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{title|Awe and nature: <br> Understanding how natural experiences change attention, perspective and the sense of self.}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:Valley View Yosemite August 2013 002.jpg|right|thumb|220px|'''Figure 1'''. Yosemite Mountains]] '''Case Study: Feeling small in Yosemite ''' Imagine standing at Yosemite National Park, you see vast landscapes of mountains, immersed in green forests and the sky (see Figure 1). But what [[TESOL/Emotions|emotions]] do you think you might feel? You might feel physically smaller than the mountains, and you might suddenly feel as if your worries and fears feel less consuming. This complex emotional experience is called awe. Researchers investigated this experience by asking visitors at Yosemite to draw a picture of themselves after viewing the parks landscape, the participants had a tendency to draw themselves significantly smaller to the mountains. They compared these drawings to those of tourists at Fisherman’s Wharf, a more urban setting, who drew big portraits. This identified the idea of the small self, further research revealed that on the day individuals experienced awe, they were also more likely to perceive themselves as smaller (Monroy & Kelter, 2023). This chapter will evaluate the psychological processes underlying nature induced awe, and how these experiences influence the sense of self and wellbeing, and whether awe can be recreated through digital experiences of nature. * The Yosemite findings raise a fundamental question. What is it about vast natural environments that can transform the way we think of individual experiences and the world around us? * Understanding this relationship through psychology can help investigate the cognitive and emotional processes involved in awe, and how this emotion can influence mental wellbeing. * Psychological research has revealed why certain natural experiences may evoke awe, and how awe changes attention and sense of self, and ultimately if these changes contribute to wellbeing. * Understanding the relationship between awe and nature, can help explain the impacts of nature on an individual. {{RoundBoxBottom}} __TOC__{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ===== Focus Questions ===== * What psychological processes explain the experience of awe in nature? * How does nature induced awe influence the sense of self and psychological well being? * How can technology recreate nature-induced experiences of awe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Psychological processes that explain the experience of awe in nature== * Awe is a profound feeling of sense of self, people often feel a sense of awe towards things like nature. Awe can be explained as a distinct self transcending [[emotion]], awe is proposed to shift peoples perspective from a egocentric focus to a more broader view of the self (Jiang et al., 2024). * To understand awe the two appraisals are central to the foundation of how individuals experience awe. Keltner and Hadith (2003) proposed this psychological model introducing the idea of perceived vastness and need for accommodation. * Perceived vastness is explained to be something so physically or conceptually larger than self. * The second theory is the need for accommodation, which states the active mental struggle to comprehend the extraordinary experience. * Together they create what ultimately make up the feeling of awe, the process of awe can lead to radical changes in world view and sense of self (Jiang et al., 2024). Because of these two appraisals it helps us understand why it is so common to experience awe towards mountains or the ocean. ==== Attention and everyday awe ==== * Traditional theories emphasize vastness, awe does not only occur during rare encounters with dramatic landscape. * More recent research has introduced this concept of wondering awe, a gentler more accessible experience that can emerge through attentive engagement with ordinary aspects of nature (Büssing et al., 2025). * Rather than the exposure of Yosemite mountains, wondering awe emphasises an individual who pauses to notice the warmth of sunlight or the movement of leaves and feels a sense of awe. * This contradicts the traditional explanation of awe, if perceived vastness is central to the experience how can something so small like sunlight evoke it? * One possibility is that awe is influenced by the meaning and attention given to the stimuli. Slowing down and becoming engulfed in "normal" [[nature]] to notice complexity and beauty, establishes this idea of wondering awe. * Büssing et al., (2025) suggests nature exposure alone may not actively improve psychological wellbeing, instead the argument is that wondering awe may help explain how an individual's engagement with nature can inflict awe. * Rogers (2019) has a similar idea called micro awe and focuses on the innate biological connection to nature. ==== Changing nature and awe ==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ===== Imagine this ... ===== You walk the same route home every day after work, most days you barely notice the sky. But today the sky is filled with a vivid sunset (see Figure 2), you stop look up and take a brief moment to appreciate the sky, the location has not changed, but why are you experiencing a sense of awe in a familiar environment? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Sunset may 2006 panorama.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': A sunset]] * The ability of nature to evoke awe is also influenced by the context in which it is experienced. * Natural environments are not static, the same location can appear ordinary in one moment than extraordinary in another moment. * Smalley and White (2023), highlighted the concept of ephemeral phenomena such as sunsets, rainbows and storms, and found that these temporary changes influenced the connection of awe towards nature. * Smalley and White (2023) findings suggest that a landscape does not have fixed awe value, instead its capacity to evoke awe may shift with changes in weather, light and time of day (Smalley & White, 2023). == Awe and psychological wellbeing == Experiencing Awe in nature can influence an individual's immediate emotional state, it may also change how people perceive themselves and others. Research has associated awe with change in self focus, perspective, social connection and wellbeing (Jiang et al.,2024; Monroy & Keltner, 2023). * Understanding these effects may help explain why certain encounter with nature can change our perspectives. ==== The small self and perspective ==== * One of the most recognised psychological effects of awe is the "small self", where an individual experiences a reduced sense of self in relation to perceiving something much larger (Monroy & Keltner, 2023). * This concept can be seen in the Yosemite study introduced earlier, where the study highlighted the small self, being exposed to the mountains made the participants feel small. * Feeling physically small does not mean feeling insignificant. Jiang et al., (2024) distinguishes that we may feel physically smaller but awe cannot make us feel insignificant instead it shifts our attention away from an egocentric perspective to broader view of the world. * This broader perspective can explain why everyday worries can temporarily feel less consuming during awe. * Büssing et al., (2025) found that awe and gratitude mediated the relationship between experiences of nature and wellbeing, suggesting that meaningful engagement with nature may matter more beyond simply being present in a natural environment. ==== Awe and general wellbeing ==== * Awe can help explain why some experiences in nature have positive psychological effects, ultimately it is how an individual responds to nature. * The experience of awe may also extend beyond personal wellbeing by changing individual perspectives. Awe has been associated with greater prosocial behaviour and social connection (Jiang et al., 2024), while sublime experiences in nature can involve feelings of vitality, freedom and unity with the natural world (Bethelmy & Corraliza, 2019). * Awe and wellbeing is complex, because awe directly is not always a positive emotion. Awe can occur alongside negative emotions such as fear or even mixed emotional states (Jiang et al., 2024). * Awe and fear can arise when vast powerful aspects of nature are perceived as a threat, such as a bushfire or flood the psychological impacts would probably not be beneficial. This demonstrates that the psychological benefits of nature induced awe may depend on how the experience is emotionally interpreted, particularly whether it is perceived as positive or threatening. == Awe in the digital world == * Traditionally awe in nature has been studied with an individual who physically encounters vast natural environments, but what if we could feel awe through technology? * Developments in digital technology challenge the idea of foundational awe, and question weather individuals need to be present in nature to experience awe. * Virtual technology can recreate digital environments with the same characteristics such as spaciousness, scale and sensory immersion. This idea allows research into whether psychological experience of awe can also occur through simulated nature. * Van Houwelingen-Snippe et al., (2020) found that spacious digital nature can make an individual experience awe especially when viewed alone suggesting the idea of perception scale. * Similarly, virtual reality can create immersive environments that increase feelings of presence and perceived vastness, providing another method for eliciting awe (Jiang et al., 2024). * These findings raise an interesting question, if awe depends on vastness does the nature producing it need to be real? Digital nature can be a useful tool in understanding the psychlogical process of awe more clearly, and achieve clinical based wellbeing treatments so everyone can feel awe. ;<nowiki>Quizz: Take home questions</nowiki> <quiz display="simple"> {An individual must be physically present in a natural environment to experience nature induced awe: |type="()"} - True + False {Spaciousness in a digital natural enviroment can contribute to the feeling of awe: |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Nature induced awe must include vastness and need for accommodation rather than nature exposure alone. The two appraisal provide a foundational understanding of awe. * Wondering awe and ephemeral phenomena demonstrate that extraordinary experiences can emerge from ordinary or changing aspects in nature. * Awe can change how individuals perceive themselves and their experiences, rather than feeling insignificance its the shrinking of egocentric self focus that encourages a broader thinking. * The psychological effects of awe are not universally positive, natural environment can evoke happiness, social connection. But awe can coexist with threat and fear. Therefore, how an individual emotionally interprets awe, the certain interpretation may influence if it contributes to psychological wellbeing. * Digital and virtual environments can recreate characteristics of nature, suggesting that psychological perception may be as important as physical presence in nature. ==See also== List [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Awe and the diminished self|Awe and the diminished self]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and Wellbeing]] (Book chapter, 2017) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Nature connection and emotional well-being|Nature connection and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Psychological well-being]] (Wikipedia) ==References== Bonnell, M. (2026, March 4). ''Nature, awe and mental health: Why we feel better outdoors''. Peaceful Mind. <nowiki>https://peacefulmind.com.au/2026/03/04/the-role-of-nature-and-awe-in-creating-a-calmer-mind/</nowiki> Büssing, A., Wilhelm, J., & Rodrigues Recchia, D. (2025). Wondering awe is the mediator of the link between experience of nature and psychological wellbeing—Relevance for public health. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''22''(11), 1679. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22111679</nowiki> Jiang, T., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W., Yin, Y., Needy, L., & Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. ''Nature Reviews Psychology'', ''3''(475–488), 1–14. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-024-00322-z</nowiki> Monroy, M., & Keltner, D. (2022). Awe as a pathway to mental and physical health. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''18''(2), 174569162210948. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221094856</nowiki> Rogers, K. (2019). Biophilia hypothesis. In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/biophilia-hypothesis</nowiki> Smalley, A. J., & White, M. P. (2023). Beyond blue-sky thinking: Diurnal patterns and ephemeral meteorological phenomena impact appraisals of beauty, awe, and value in urban and natural landscapes. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''86''(101955), 101955. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.101955</nowiki> van Houwelingen-Snippe, J., van Rompay, T. J. L., de Jong, M. D. T., & Ben Allouch, S. (2020). Does digital nature enhance social aspirations? An experimental study. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''17''(4), 1454. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041454</nowiki> ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/video/item/how_scientists_measure_awe_in_the_wild How Scientists Measure Awe in the Wild] (Greater Good Magazine) * [https://mindfulforestbathing.com.au/the-transformative-power-of-awe-in-nature/ The Transformative Power of Awe in Nature] (Mindful in nature) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-new-home/201807/the-psychology-awe-awe-in-nature The Psychology of Awe: Awe in Nature] (PsychologyToday) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] ==Overview== brayy56wk6qnovbv4fsf7zt445mw3tz 2 331364 2830373 2829887 2026-09-02T04:06:44Z U3228742 3005570 /* Social contributions */ 2830373 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student studying an undergraduate Bachelor of Science in Psychology. My interests and area of focus is social psychology, emotional intelligence, and the understanding people's motivations. I am a life learner who has studied other health modalities and would love to practice clinical psychology. [[File:Sourdough Bread Loaf.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Sourdough is time consuming process yet worth it for every bite]] == Hobbies == * [[w:Painting|Painting]] * Reading * Baking [[w:Sourdough|sourdough]] == Chapter I am currently working on == Created a chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy|Dark Empathy]] in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Motivation and emotion book 2026]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBreathing_exercises_and_relaxation&diff=2829879&oldid=2828782 Fixed '''title'''] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive_versus_affective_empathy&action=edit Comment on Wikiversity page] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457898?entry_id=813044 Added to discussion] qqzuxkma5efp4bm3i6ceqg3bpu8ncsv 2 331388 2830327 2826660 2026-09-02T00:25:02Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Social contributions */ 2830327 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026 : [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of book chapter (UC Learn)] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter (2025)] # 10: 22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 2 September 2026: # 2 September 2026: bk5y6x46kvisid3cy8m5loyu9lxr5k6 2830333 2830327 2026-09-02T01:00:52Z P U3270518 3106535 social contribution 2830333 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026 : [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of book chapter (UC Learn)] # # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter (2025)] # 10: 22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section (Book Chapter, 2025)] # gob8ef770xb4incf2tzuwzyhcpbqkxc 2830348 2830333 2026-09-02T01:55:30Z P U3270518 3106535 2830348 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of book chapter (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on UC Learn about how to use GenAI in the unit] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter (2025)] # 10: 22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section (Book Chapter, 2025)] # nrwwh04uftsmiwh9a121hohmshb4h86 2830355 2830348 2026-09-02T02:58:21Z P U3270518 3106535 social contribution 2830355 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of book chapter (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on UC Learn about how to use GenAI in the unit] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter (2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion (UC Learn)] 4iv4g6m8e7e8tglopp6kxvmb1jcr4dh 2830359 2830355 2026-09-02T03:08:46Z P U3270518 3106535 2830359 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Perfectionism and procrastination What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of book chapter (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on UC Learn about how to use GenAI in the unit] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter (2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion (UC Learn)] bchd6notq78m296erhvpullstt3xhq4 2830362 2830359 2026-09-02T03:12:41Z P U3270518 3106535 2830362 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Perfectionism and procrastination What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on UC Learn about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter (2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] amcjwjknn9qyl6stvv5gvy1tsdivfx8 2830364 2830362 2026-09-02T03:22:09Z P U3270518 3106535 social contribution 2830364 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Perfectionism and procrastination What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on UC Learn about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] 5enpl29bs21bx70rl4t6s21b2t8lfxj 2830366 2830364 2026-09-02T03:24:58Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Social contributions */ 2830366 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Perfectionism and procrastination What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on UC Learn about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10: 54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] #3 September 2026: #3 September 2026: #3 September 2026: 2ly0zqk9tqvk7d7e118a4yaoan95vev 0 331420 2830256 2829966 2026-09-01T17:13:41Z DavidMCEddy 218607 add video and audio 2830256 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This discusses a 2026-08-27 interview with [[w:Renée DiResta|Renée DiResta]] about managing the good and the evils of social media, including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-08-22 to the fortnightly "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''<ref><!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates-->{{cite Q|Q6593294}}</ref> :''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV>The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.</ref> and treating others with respect.''<ref name=AGF>[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|"Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything."]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.</ref> [[File:Managing the good and the evils of social media.webm|thumb|Interview with Georgetown University Public Policy Professor Renée DiResta on managing the good and the evils of social media]] [[File:Managing the good and the evil of social media.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from an interview with Georgetown University Public Policy Professor Renée DiResta on managing the good and the evils of social media]] [[w:Renée DiResta|Renée DiResta]] discusses what she recommends that individuals and groups, including governments, do to advance their interests considering the good and the evils of social media. Her comments are based primarily on research summarized in her 2024 book on ''Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality'',<ref>DiResta (2024).</ref> updated in 2026 with the addition of an epilogue.<ref>DiResta (2026).</ref> She is interviewed by Spencer Graves<ref><!--Spencer Graves-->{{cite Q|Q56452480}}</ref> In November 2014, a month before a [[w:Disneyland measles outbreak|major measles outbreak began in Disneyland]], DiResta was the mother of a 12-month-old studying data on vaccination rates in California. She was alarmed that vaccination rates had been falling. She wrote a blog post about that. Then she called her representative in the California state assembly and asked about the prospects for eliminating the personal-belief exemption from vaccination requirements for children in day care and schools in California. She was told that the anti-vaxxers were too strong. After the Disneyland outbreak, she called back and got a different answer: A representative who was an MD had introduced a bill "to eliminate the personal-belief exemption" to the requirement to vaccinate children entering pre-school and school. Vaccines are never 100% effective. Just over half of those infected from the Disneyland outbreak had been vaccinated, proving that :''each unvaccinated human threatens everyone else'', though the threats to the vaccinated are substantially less than to the unvaccinated.<ref>See also Graves and Samuelson (2022-03).</ref> DiResta publicly supported the bill to eliminate the personal-believe exemption and drew the ire of leading anti-vaxxers, few of whom lived in California. That led to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills exceeding a million dollars.<ref>DiResta (2024, pp. 1-3).</ref> She soon figured out that most of the anti-vaccine comments came from out of state, some by bots. That work morphed into a job as the Technical Research Manager at the [[w:Stanford Internet Observatory|Stanford Internet Observatory]] between 2019 and 2024 and then to her current position at Georgetown University.<ref><!--Renee DiResta, Associate Research Professor, Georgetown U-->{{cite Q|Q141158430}}</ref> That work produced a 2022 report by The Virality Project<ref><!--The Virality Project-->{{cite Q|Q141158012}}</ref> with DiResta as lead editor that documents how anti-vaccine narratives on social media dramatically reduced the effectiveness of public health efforts.<ref>The Virality Project (2022).</ref> It also produced a 2024 report on "Shaping the Future of Social Media with Middleware", which she edited with Luke Hogg,<ref>Hogg and DiResta, eds. (2024).</ref> and a 2025 report on "For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies", co-authored by [[w:Rachel Kleinfeld|Rachel Kleinfeld]].<ref name=DiKleinfeld>DiResta and Kleinfeld (2025).</ref> == Highlights == :''These excerpts from the interview are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.'' When asked for the most important things she would like to communicate to this audience, DiResta replied, "a lot of what I work on is just helping people understand how the information environment works today. So sometimes people are very concerned about generative AI showing up in their feed and how to know it's real. Sometimes they want to talk about changes in political propaganda ... ." === Pizzagate === Graves asked about [[w:Pizzagate conspiracy theory|Pizzagate]] and how she recommends targeted organizations and individuals like [[w:Hillary Clinton|Hillary Clinton]] respond to attacks like that. She replied, {{quote| That was a really politically motivated attack ... . Pizzagate, for those who don't know, happened ... during the 2016 campaign. ... There had been a Russian hack and leak of her email, well, [[w:John Podesta|John Podesta]]'s, her campaign's email. ... They saw the campaign ordering out for pizza. [[w:Jack Posobiec|Jack Posobiec]], who's a right-wing influencer with millions of followers now (he only had tens of thousands of followers back then) started going through these documents; they were posted to [[w:WikiLeaks|WikiLeaks]]. [Posobiec and others] were saying things like, 'Oh, they're ordering pizza a lot.' Pizza is, you know, pedophile code for young children.<ref>Evon (2020).</ref> There's no evidence of this whatsoever, but that's the rumor that they come up with, that's the theory they come up with. And then these folks on the internet really get very amped up trying to find out what's happening. They think that they're participating in an investigation, finding the people who are hurting children. ...}} Graves added, "The thing got so out of control that a guy showed up with a rifle." DiResta agreed, "Which speaks to why responding is actually important, because there was somebody who showed up at the pizza place with a gun to rescue the kids. He believed it. He had been convinced that this was something that had happened, and so he wanted to go and investigate for himself. And he winds up getting arrested. I think he fires into the ceiling, if I'm not mistaken, as he's demanding to be told where the kids are." Graves then asked, "What do you recommend governments do about this?" DiResta replied, {{quote| I don't know what governments can do in that particular case. In the United States, you have the right to lie. That's just a First Amendment right. Jack Posoviec is out there doing his thing, and it's not really the government's place to say that he can't in this particular case. Obviously the person who shows up with the gun is prosecuted accordingly, because they turn those words into actual violent actions. The United States does not really have a lot that it is going to do when it comes to stopping rumors on social media. What it can do, for example, getting away from something like Pizzagate, which is a wild online rumor, is the government can speak back, which means that the government absolutely can put out a statement, if this was, for example, a rumor about an administration. I just want to point out that Hillary Clinton was not the government during Pizzagate. She was a candidate. When the government does want to speak back, let's say during a [[w:COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy|COVID vaccine rumor]] or a natural disaster when some rumor goes viral about [[w:Federal Emergency Management Agency|FEMA]], the government can speak and should speak in those moments. You should see the institutions go and post. I think that's an absolutely necessary thing to do.}} === Make America Healthy Again === Graves then asked, "Talk about how the government is trying to [[w:Make America Healthy Again|Make America Healthy Again]]. DiResta replied, {{quote| I'm very clearly on the record as a pro-vaccine activist myself who really loaths the person who runs [[w:United States Department of Health and Human Services|HHS]]. We had two people die of measles in Philadelphia yesterday ... .<ref>Mitman and the Associated Press (2026).</ref> We had [[w:2025 Southwest United States measles outbreak|babies die in Texas]].<ref>The Wikipedia article on "[[w:2025 Southwest United States measles outbreak|2025 Southwest United States measles outbreak]]" lists three deaths: two children aged 6 and 8 in [[w:Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock, Texas]] and an adult in [[w:Lea County, New Mexico|Lea County, New Mexico]]. No infants.</ref> I think he's profoundly negative for this country. I think the fact that he is in power shows that, unfortunately, populist messages resonate quite well and are countered quite poorly. All of the opportunities over the last 10 years that people had to fight back against him and his ridiculous theories, they did not take and use as, in my opinion, they should have. ... What they should have been saying is that the anti-vaccine movement is full of freeloaders who kill kids, and that's what we're seeing today.}} === Philanthropies should help grantees improve their use of social media === Graves noted, "You've got a publication that came out last September with Rachel Kleinfeld.<ref name=DiKleinfeld/> You recommend that philanthropies should [support] the recipients of their grants to do better with social media." DiResta replied, {{quote| Philanthropy is very, very important. It funds a lot of excellent research. When I was at Stanford, we were funded by private donors. We only had one [[w:National Science Foundation|National Science Foundation]] grant. There are trade-offs to where your funding comes from. The government has a different set of requirements. Philanthropy may have a theory of change that it wants to see in the world. There are different ways that philanthropy funds academia and civil society. But particularly when it's thinking about how it can be impactful, for a very long time the focus, the measure of impact was how many publications did these folks put out? Did they get quoted in ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]''? Did they have op-eds in ''[[w:The Washington Post|The Washington Post]]''? Did they engage with legislators effectively? ... But there's really no prize given for academics, particularly young people on tenure track, to engage the public directly. I think that that's a real shortcoming. I think that you have to be making your case to the people. You can't be making your case to elites and paywalled op-eds. The argument that Rachel and I made in that piece for [[w:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie]]<ref name=DiKleinfeld/> was that philanthropy should welcome and value and actually encourage institutions to participate in what we quaintly called new media ... .}} Gaves continued, "My understanding is you want leading scientists to have a presence in social media, and a national following, so it's easier for them to counter things like Pizzagate." DiResta agreed: "Exactly." === Make America Healthy Again by avoiding vaccines === Graves added, "And Making America Healthy Again?" DiResta: "Right." Graves: "By destroying vaccines?" DiResta: recalled, {{quote| I've been very online since I was very young. I got the internet when I was in middle school. My dad was in [[w:Big Tech|Big Tech]]. He used to take me to computer shows ... . When there was a measles outbreak in California in 2014, ... I had a}} Graves added, "12 months old in November." DiResta agreed, {{quote| Yes! Old enough to get one [[w:MMR vaccine|MMR shot]]. They wait a year, normally, before they give that to babies. So we lucked out on the timing. But there had also been [[w:Whooping cough|whooping cough]] outbreaks constantly in California that year. It was a very bad year for whooping cough.<ref>Winter et al. (2014).</ref> Babies die of whooping cough, and I found it outrageous that more people were not speaking up about this. I was a [[w:Venture capital#Venture capitalist|venture capitalist]]. Then I had a startup. So I was in tech. That was my job. But I decided, just as a mom, I was going to use whatever platform I had to be active on social media. And I kept noticing that the [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] was not in the conversation. ... You had massive numbers of people just spreading crazy theories about various made-up harms, where the side effect is so tiny, so infinitesimally rare. But they blow it out of proportion, and they make people very afraid. ... Vaccines are becoming an identity marker. They're becoming politicized. If you guys aren't in there countering that, you are not shaping public opinion. ... The papers about vaccines are in medical journals. ... Who is there in the public to translate that for you? It has to be the author of the paper or somebody in the field, who can explain that specialized knowledge. And if people want to get that from [[w:YouTube|YouTube]] or a podcast, because they don't want to read, let's be honest, increasingly, more and more people get their information that way, so you've got to be there.}} Graves noted, "You posted a blog promoting vaccines. And then you called your representative in the California State Assembly and asked if it was feasible to get legislation to eliminate the personal preference option to opt out of vaccines? And you were told, no: That's like the [[w:Third rail (politics)|third rail]]." DiResta agreed. Graves continued, "Then there was an outbreak in Disneyland." DiResta said, "I think 200 and something people wound up sick in that one." Graves replied, "And you called back and got a different answer." DiResta continued, {{quote| Lawmakers oftentimes need to feel like there is public support for the bills that they propose. If they come out of nowhere with a bill that only one side is really going to activate around to oppose, and there's no side active to support, the bill's not going to go anywhere. ... In Berkeley there were schools that had 35% [[w:MMR vaccine|MMR]] uptake. I thought, "This is wild." I grew up in New York, where that kind of opt-out was not a thing. You got a religious exemption if you had a sincere religious belief, or you got a medical exemption if you were medically precluded from being vaccinated. You didn't just get to say, I'm opting out of the social contract and not vaccinating my kindergartner. I found this outrageous. This is my political belief. ... Are there other people who agree with this? ... I think the bill was polling at over 80% when it was finally introduced.<ref>Siders (2015) reported, "Sixty-seven percent of California adults and 65 percent of public school parents say children should not be allowed to attend public schools unless they are vaccinated against diseases like measles, mumps and rubella, according to a new poll." That article was June 4. The bill was officially introduced February 19 and was passed and became law in late June. It could have polled better in February; a web search on 2026-08-31 found no publication describing such.</ref> The other takeaway I had from that was that the anti-vaccine movement is very noisy, and very well organized, and very visible on social media. ... States set their vaccine rules. As states come under attack and under pressure from the federal government to move things in [[w:Robert F. Kennedy Jr.|RFK Jr.]]'s direction, parents are gonna have to push back.}} Graves noted, "And you were [[w:Doxing|doxxed]], and you were called to subpoena to testify before the United States Congress, and you wound up with legal bills running over a million dollars?" DiResta replied, {{quote| Oh, running over $7 million, I think, at this point. It's very expensive to be repeatedly subpoenaed and sued. Stanford Internet Observatory. I was asked to come join as the first head of research and help start the center. I joined in early 2019. We did a whole lot of work on state actor interference, intersections with cybersecurity, emergence of AI, a lot of child safety work. And we also in 2020 did a project looking at the election. And in 2021 looking at the COVID vaccine. And in both of those projects we tracked rumors as they came out, and we tried to triage them. If state and local election officials were concerned about a Twitter account pretending to be an election official in Pennsylvania, they could reach out to us, and we would evaluate it. Is this going anywhere? What's happening with it? And then we would sometimes decide to send something on to a tech company. ... Sometimes the platforms put a label on it. 65% of the time, they did nothing. About 30% of the time, they put a label on it, and maybe, and it was around 10% of the time or so that the post came down. ''And usually if it came down, it was related to fraud or impersonation or phishing.'' (Emphasis added.) That work, was in real time, documenting the rise of the [[w:Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election#Stop the Steal|Stop the Steal movement.]] That was what we were actually seeing happen. And we were writing about it. We were academics reporting on exactly what we saw. When the left did or said ridiculous things, we would post about them too. But overwhelmingly the people trying to delegitimize the 2020 election were the sitting president [Trump] and his inner circle of influencers. So we wrote about that, because that's reality. In response, two years later, the House flips, and [[w:Jim Jordan|[Republican] Jim Jordan]] gets his gavel. And he subpoenas us alleging that our project, because we occasionally communicated with government officials, was really a secret censorship cabal in which the government was telling us to tell platforms to take things down. There was no evidence of any of that, but we had to spend 2 years dealing with the subpoena, and then 3 years for each of our lawsuits. [[w:America First Legal|America First Legal]], [[w:Stephen Miller|Stephen Miller]], sued us. That was dismissed in July, but they have decided to appeal. That is how vexatious litigation works. The intent is to bankrupt you. It really pushes a lot of people out of the conversation, because they're afraid, or institutions even, universities.}} === Strategic lawsuits against public participation === Graves noted that, "Many states have anti-SLAPP bills, [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation#United States|strategic lawsuits against public participation]]. Talk about that." DiResta replied, {{quote| Yeah, ... . I think there needs to be a federal anti-SLAPP statute.<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]] in his [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|2026-07-02 interview for this series]] agreed with the need for a federal anti-SLAPP law. He said, "The anti-SLAPP movement is important. For many years, there's been an attempt to get a federal anti-SLAPP law, but that hasn't been successful so far."</ref> ... We were not sued for defamation. The allegation was that we had somehow violated the First Amendment rights of people we had written about in our reports, because we were de facto agents of the United States government. I'm not even kidding. It's as ridiculous as it sounds. But that was the theory that they put forth. And there was no evidence of the government funding us, or the government asking us to do anything. ... They sued us in Louisiana and in Texas, where they could find favorable judges. In certain locales you can file an anti-SLAPP motion. ... We'd been sued once previously by [[w:Project Veritas|Project Veritas]], and we filed an anti-SLAPP motion against that. We won that, and they paid our legal fees.}} === Non-commercial social media === Graves asked, "What are your thoughts about non-commercial social media like [[w:Mastodon (social network)|Mastodon]], [[w:Bluesky|Bluesky]], and [[w:PeerTube|PeerTube]]?" DiResta replied, {{quote| Oh, I love it! I want to be totally candid: I know that it is not innately easy to use in some cases. I remember with Mastodon, you had to pick your server. That was very confusing for a lot of people. On Bluesky, you have feeds and labelers. They give you an incredible amount of freedom and flexibility. ... Let's say you're a member of a marginalized group, and you feel that there are certain types of content that are allowed to stay up on mainstream platforms, but you find them deeply offensive. You don't want to see them. The beauty of decentralized social media is users have a ton more agency and can create that experience relatively easily with a few settings, tweaks for themselves.}} Graves noted that between 2022 and 2024, the European Union hosted their own Mastodon and PeerTube instances. DiResta noted, {{quote| For European sensibilities, they have different opinions on certain types of speech. They have different laws about certain types of speech, ... different cultural desires. The other thing about it is they see it as a [[w:Technological sovereignty|tech sovereignty]] issue at this point. They see it as their social infrastructure being wholly tied to a few American tech companies. They see it as alarming. And so having the flexibility of a protocol-based platform means that they can build their own infrastructure. It remains to be seen what user engagement will be like. ... The ecosystem needs funds. The advertising-based centralized social media model has turned them into juggernauts. So if you're going to facilitate a new ecosystem, you've got to seed it.}} Graves noted, "In your ''Invisible Rulers'' book, you recommend adding friction to social media. Talk about that." DiResta replied, {{quote| My personal belief, even when I was getting doxxed and harassed on social media, dealing with the kind of anti-vaccine folks during that bill in California in 2015, I do genuinely believe that it is better to default to allowing more stuff to stay up. That's my personal opinion. For free expression reasons, it's a good thing to do, for exposure to other types of ideas, and even bad ideas. It's a very helpful, useful thing to do. But feeds are ranked, so there is no neutral here. That means that a platform's values are inherently baked into what it chooses to show you. And if they're not going to give users that control, if they're not going to do what Bluesky does and let you set up your own feeds, then I think they do have some responsibility. ... I was very happy to see yesterday's verdict.<ref>Silberling (2026).</ref> ... Meta had been sued by a bunch of different states, for child safety reasons, and they settled yesterday. I want to say it was, like, $18, $19 billion? It was one of the first sizable verdicts we've really seen come down. And it comes with a series of obligations. They have to limit teen account time to 2 hours, and to turn it off at night, and things like that. So they have these different constraints. Again, you can go and you can post, but for teen accounts, they're supposed to now treat them differently.}} Graves recalled, "I interviewed [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says|Francis Haugen]], a Facebook whistleblower, who said that 'The shortest path to a click is anger or hate.'" DiResta replied, 'I think that's true. I write about this in ''Invisible Rulers''. Social media is designed to show you things that you are going to engage with. Unfortunately, a lot of the time, you're gonna do what's called, "hate sharing": "Look at this idiot, look what they posted." I get it. I do this too sometimes.' Graves added, "The designated evil others." DiResta agreed: {{quote| Exactly. And righteous indignation. Moral indignation, it turns out, performs very well. I have spent the last almost 12 years at this point doing this. ... I can put out the same article with a very neutral description, :"Here's an article you guys should read, it's about XYZ, it's about vaccines", versus, :"Look at this idiot, can you believe they believe that?" The latter will absolutely get more engagement 100% of the time. ... This is a way to get attention, get those dopamine hits of engagement. You reinforce this for political actors. This is why you see how members of Congress tweet now? They tweet like [[w:Trolling|trolls]]! It's insane.}} Graves cautioned, "That's with commercial, for-profit social media." DiResta agreed: "Exactly." Graves continued, "Facebook. And it's not necessarily the case with non-commercial social media like Bluesky, Mastodon, and PeerTube." DiResta continued, "Yep, exactly. They're just not monetizing in the same way." ===Rise of the far right in Europe === Graves asked, "What are your thoughts about the rise of the [[w:Far-right politics|far right in Europe]], including the [[w:Alternative for Germany|Alternative for Germany, Alternative for Deutschland]], AfD in Germany, and [[w:Marine Le Pen|Marine Le Pen]]'s [[w:National Rally|National Rally]], in France?" DiResta replied, {{quote| The rise of the global far right has been an interesting thing to see. To be clear, I don't study extremism. That's not my area. But what I look at when it comes to these things is who's producing content that resonates? Who understands how to hit those notes, like I was just describing? Who understands how to rile people up about particular issues, even if that means stretching the truth, or lying, or decontextualizing things? A combination of things are happening. It's not just social media. There are also real social forces, where people feel that they are not succeeding in real life, not economically mobile. ... And when you have politicians who are adept at decontextualizing things, and are willing to decontextualize and lie, it provides a lot of fodder for their messages to be seen. Real people amplify it and share it and sincerely believe it. And then on the flip side, they're also just better at communicating online. And populist narratives move really well because they make people feel heard. ... People with liberal values need to do a better job of understanding what it means to communicate their policies with that same kind of passion and that same kind of directness that makes people feel compelled to share their stuff and to engage around their stuff. And right now, you just don't see that happening.}} === Other experts === Graves asked, "Have you had a chance to look at [[w:Daron Acemoglu|Daron Acemoglu]]'s recent book on ''What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity''?<ref>Acemoglu (2026).</ref> DiResta replied, {{quote| It is on my shelf. I have not gone through it yet. ... [[w:Henry Farrell (political scientist)|Henry Farrell]] is another one. He writes a great [[w:Substack|Substack]] newsletter, where he kind of came to the same conclusion I did about the problem of flawed publics. ...}} === Vaccines are never 100% === Returning to the question of vaccinations, Graves noted that, "No vaccine is ever 100%, and many of the humans infected in the different outbreaks have already been vaccinated, although they're a lot less likely to actually catch the disease when exposed, and they often tend to have fewer symptoms, right?"<ref>DiResta (2024, p. 1) said that in the Disneyland measles outbreak, "Nearly half of the infected weren’t vaccinated." Other outbreaks have have had many fewer cases among the vaccinated. In the recent outbreak in Pennsylvania, their governor said, that all of the "nearly 400 cases involved individuals that were not fully vaccinated", according to Mitman and the Associated Press (2026).</ref> DiResta agreed, {{quote| Yes, exactly. No product is 100% safe. But you can look at the [[w:National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program|Vaccine Injury Compensation Program]], VICP, where every single claim that is of a vaccine harm. VICP is not [[w:Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System|VAERS]], which ["is susceptible to unverified reports, misattribution, underreporting, and inconsistent data quality"]. The VICP program looks at and evaluates verified claims and goes through them. VAERS has a lot of made-up stuff. I remember once somebody submitted that they had turned into the [[w:Hulk|Hulk]] after a vaccine. That's in the VAERS database. People who drown after vaccines are in the database. So if you want to see something more statistically reliable, Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) data is the thing to look at. Not necessarily what cases are compensated, but the actual numbers and stats are in there.}} === Gaza and Iran wars === Graves asked, "Talk about the role of social media in the [[w:Gaza war|Gaza war]] and its expansion into the current [[w:2026 Iran war|Iran war]]." DiResta replied, {{quote| Yeah. I love the Iran War question. I'll just start with the Iran war, because I was looking at something this morning that the Canadians put out about a trade war, and it was an AI-generated video with a bunch of [[w:Beaver|beavers]].<ref name=Davis>Davis (2026).</ref> I haven't gotten through all of it yet, because I had to hop on this, but it's on an open tab over here. One of the things that you have seen is states embracing the power of [[w:Trolling|trolling]], because the power of trolling gets them attention and engagement on social media. And so what happened with Iran in particular, the [[w:Explosive Media|Iranians have been very adept at communicating on social media]] for a long time now. They are, much like China, actually quite good at their overt communication. Their covert stuff, not so good. They're actually quite strong. They started making these AI videos of Legos acting out scenes from the war, Pete Hegseth as a drunk, you know, these sorts of things. And they're very funny. They came up with some rap songs to go along with them. The music is catchy.The visuals are like a short-form [[w:The Lego Movie|Lego action movie]]. And that made people share it. American audiences, the target audience, shared it. They found it very compelling, because it's a combination of, one, the content actually being interesting, and two, this idea of, like, "Oh my god, can you believe they're doing that?" People still remember the days of propriety. But instead, now we're like, oh man, the diplomats are all trolls, too. That form of propaganda is very interesting because it galvanizes the target itself to be the sharer. You become the distributor of the Iranian propaganda, whatever you think of the war, right? You become the distributor of that propaganda, of that message, when you choose to share it. And I think that's very interesting, because I can go in a lot of ways. I'm curious to see how the Canadian Beaver Trade War one goes.<ref name=Davis/> But the Gaza one, that's interesting for a different reason. ... Obviously, everybody sees conflict quite viscerally these days. There's very little that happens where there's not somebody recording it. The Lego videos are very sanitized. People can share that and sort of feel good about just, you know, it's entertainment. Whereas what you see coming out of other conflicts from October 7th on is these pictures of horror. And people come to form very strong opinions about who is right and who is wrong in those circumstances. And they really begin to post and to activate around it. And it becomes something where they really form online communities to get the message out to tell the story of their side. They begin to involve themselves in the comments. And algorithms will continue, usually, to reinforce what you see based on what you engage in. So once you start kind of engaging on that topic, you'll see quite a lot more of it. And it really became something, particularly for young people.}} === In sum === When asked for final remarks DiResta said, {{quote| I think it is important to recognize what role you play when you share something, or when you post something. Obviously, you have a bigger responsibility if you're a large account, if you're influential and an influencer in some way, even if you're a local influencer, just sort of specific to a community. Just be aware that you, too, can be misled.}} == The need for media reform to improve democracy == This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media & Democracy lessons for the future]]. ==Discussion == :''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV/> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF/>]'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity--{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Ava Davis (2026-08-27) AI-Generated Viral Music Video “Canadian Resistance Army — Trade War” Highlights 2026 Canada-US Trade Tensions with Humor and Wildlife Animation-->{{cite Q|Q141242369}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2024) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality-->{{cite Q|Q135530439}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Dan Evon (2020-08-11, updated 2023-06-09) "In Pizza We Trust? How Some T-Shirts Got (Falsely) Linked to Pedophilia"-->{{cite Q|Q141224444}} * <!--Spencer Graves and Douglas A. Samuelson (2022-03) "Externalities, public goods, and infectious diseases-->{{cite Q|Q111367750}} * <!--Luke Hogg and Renée DiResta, eds. (2024-12) "Shaping the Future of Social Media with Middleware-->{{cite Q|Q141158102}} * <!--Hayden Mitman and Associated Press (2026-08-25) "Gov. Shapiro touts vaccines as Pa. sees first measles deaths in 35 years"-->{{cite Q|Q141225090}} * <!--David Siders (2015-06-04) "Majority of Californians support mandatory vaccines for schoolchildren"-->{{cite Q|Q141239239}} * <!--Amanda Silberling (2026-08-26) "Meta settles for $18B in lawsuit brought by 29 states over social media harms to children-->{{cite Q|Q141243736}} *<!--The Virality Project (2022) Memes, Magnets, and Microchips: Narrative dynamics around COVID-19 vaccines-->{{cite Q|Q141158003}} * <!--Kathleen Winter, Carol Glaser, James Watt, Kathleen H Harriman (2014-12-05) "Pertussis Epidemic — California, 2014"-->{{cite Q|Q141237726}} [[Category:Media]] [[Category:Social media]] [[Category:News]] [[Category:Democracy]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Media literacy]] [[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] <!--list of categories https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review [[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--> hpf78iewzv5k2p6ngohfmf1l9bqcd5v 1 331522 2830351 2830151 2026-09-02T02:22:33Z U3270398 3108645 /* Feedback on your chapter */ new section 2830351 wikitext text/x-wiki == Emotional Regulation and Alcohol Use == You can completely reject this or take it however you please, but I find this topic incredibly interesting and just have a perspective that I'd like to share. a couple of potentially useful points that I have are: * People don't necessarily try to get rid of emotions; regulation can involve changing the intensity, duration or expression of an emotion. * Alcohol can become a form of maladaptive emotion regulation, where someone uses drinking to reduce unpleasant feelings rather than using healthier coping strategies. For example: * Someone experiencing stress, anxiety, sadness or social discomfort may drink because they expect alcohol to make them feel calmer or happier. I wish you luck on the rest of your writing journey! [[User:U3280843|U3280843]] ([[User talk:U3280843|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280843|contribs]]) 01:57, 26 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Focus on emotion regulation (rather than motivation) # The Conclusion should not have sub-headings (fixed) # Check and correct grammar (e.g., missing question marks <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Overall, I think the focus questions offer a stronger structure than the headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Partial development # Also consider negative and positive emotion dysregulation # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underdeveloped # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Basic <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 06:46, 1 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on your chapter == Hiya! Really like the Friday night scenario, the question you end on about whether people are reliant on the alcohol or the relief is a great hook. In See also, The Wiley and Frontiers articles are academic sources, so they would go better in the References section with in text citations. The introspection one might work well in your alternative strategies section since that's still just headings at the moment? Also adding a Wikipedia link to the See also section would cover the second required link type. Good luck with the rest of the chapter! [[User:U3270398|U3270398]] ([[User talk:U3270398|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3270398|contribs]]) 02:22, 2 September 2026 (UTC) kt6a9zeipkxn3r0q7z4eg8unkopmgrc 0 331552 2830220 2828820 2026-09-01T15:16:31Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2830220 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|Figure 1]] === Scenario === '''Imagine this ...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? '''Figure 1.''' A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors. === Key points === * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Each chapter should use this standard heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] *Understanding warm-glow giving *Why does giving feel good? *How do emotions influence charitable giving? *How does warm glow encourage future prosocial behaviour? * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful for this chapter because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} <div style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"> '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' </div> ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). ==Learning Feature - Table 1== {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). {{anchor|Feature box}} {{anchor|}} Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving.: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions.: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving helps explain why giving can feel personally rewarding. Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism proposes that people can value another person's welfare while simultaneously receiving internal satisfaction from their own act of giving. Research provides psychological support for this idea. Positive affect and reward-related processes can contribute to charitable decisions, and affectively congruent appeals can increase giving through positive aroused affect (Genevsky et al., 2025). Giving and volunteering are also associated with greater psychological well-being, although correlational evidence should be interpreted cautiously when considering causal conclusions (Geng et al., 2022). The emotional consequences of giving can shape future behaviour. Positive or negative reactions to previous donation decisions provide feedback that helps guide later choices (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021), while perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement (Chen, 2025). Prosocial emotion can also spread socially. Observing generosity can create moral elevation and encourage prosocial contagion (Yin et al., 2026), while warm glow can contribute to support for poverty-alleviation crowdfunding (Xing et al., 2024). However, giving does not always feel good. Donation requests can generate anxiety, guilt, anger, pride, joy, and ambivalent emotional states (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Emotional decision-making may also make donors less sensitive to the actual scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). Overall, giving can feel good because prosocial behaviour can generate positive affect and internal reward. These emotional benefits can motivate repeated and socially contagious prosocial behaviour, but whether emotion promotes effective and sustainable generosity depends on the donor, context, nature of the appeal, and emotional experience. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Wikiversity) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= }}{{tip|Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) == AI use acknowledgement == OpenAI. (2026). ''ChatGPT'' (GPT-5.6 Sol) [Large language model]. [https://chatgpt.com/ https://chatgpt.com/] '''AI use acknowledgement:''' ChatGPT (OpenAI, 2026) was used to assist with structuring the chapter, improving clarity and academic expression, and organising information from the references selected by the author. The final content and references were reviewed and edited by the author. o7bsxz9eaaskwx5tkusx1bvm7obnrsn 2 331735 2830280 2829875 2026-09-01T18:54:45Z JimKillock 330368 2830280 wikitext text/x-wiki * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Primum School conversation]] * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Secundum On being late]] * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Tertium The manner of exusing oneself]] n61vvfsswrkdz2l679xp7tq0jimqscn 2830283 2830280 2026-09-01T19:17:25Z JimKillock 330368 2830283 wikitext text/x-wiki * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Primum School conversation]] * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Secundum On being late]] * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Tertium The manner of exusing oneself]] * [[User:JimKillock/Nos in Schola Latine loquimur/Capitulum Quartum On writing]] l5dpzt7wd221ud26en9n900kv6ako5l 2 331744 2830211 2830195 2026-09-01T14:36:16Z JonAwbrey 29537 break out and reformat tables {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" 2830211 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Sign Relations== ===Display 1=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Display 1.png|220px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" cellpadding="8" | <math>\begin{array}{ccl} O & = & \text{Object Domain} \\[6pt] S & = & \text{Sign Domain} \\[6pt] I & = & \text{Interpretant Domain} \end{array}</math> |} ===Display 2=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Display 2.png|440px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" cellpadding="8" | <math>\begin{array}{cclcl} O & = & \{ \text{Ann}, \text{Bob} \} & = & \{ \mathrm{A}, \mathrm{B} \} \\[6pt] S & = & \{ \text{“Ann”}, \text{“Bob”}, \text{“I”}, \text{“you”} \} & = & \{ \text{“A”}, \text{“B”}, \text{“i”}, \text{“u”} \} \\[6pt] I & = & \{ \text{“Ann”}, \text{“Bob”}, \text{“I”}, \text{“you”} \} & = & \{ \text{“A”}, \text{“B”}, \text{“i”}, \text{“u”} \} \end{array}</math> |} ===Table 1=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Twin Tables LA LB 2.0.png|800px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" style="width:80%" | width="50%" | {| align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-bottom:1px solid black; border-left:1px solid black; border-right:1px solid black; border-top:1px solid black; text-align:center; width:90%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 1a. Sign Relation of Interpreter A}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:ghostwhite" | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |} | width="50%" | {| align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-bottom:1px solid black; border-left:1px solid black; border-right:1px solid black; border-top:1px solid black; text-align:center; width:90%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 1b. Sign Relation of Interpreter B}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:ghostwhite" | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |} |} ==Higher Order Sign Relations &bull; Examples== ===Table 36=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 36. Semantics for Higher Order Signs}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object Denoted}</math> | <math>\text{Equivalent Signs}</math> |- | width="50%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | width="50%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“A”} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“B”} \end{matrix}</math> |- | width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{“A”} \\ \text{“B”} \\ \text{“i”} \\ \text{“u”} \end{matrix}</math> | width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“A”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“B”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“i”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“u”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>x, ~ {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}, ~ {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}, ~ {}^{\langle\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle\rangle}, ~ \ldots</math> |} The intent of this succession, as interpreted in FL environments, is that <math>{}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}</math> denotes or refers to <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle},</math> which denotes or refers to <math>x.</math> Moreover, its computational realization, as implemented in CL environments, is that <math>{}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}</math> addresses or evaluates to <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle},</math> which addresses or evaluates to <math>x.</math> <br> ===Table 37=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 37. Sign Relation Containing a Higher Order Sign}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \text{s} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{s} \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \text{t} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 38=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 38. Sign Relation for a Succession of Higher Order Signs (1)}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} x \\[2pt] {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 39=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 39. Sign Relation for a Succession of Higher Order Signs (2)}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} x \\[2pt] s_1 \\[2pt] s_2 \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} s_1 \\[2pt] s_2 \\[2pt] s_3 \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 40=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 40. Reflective Origin} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^0 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 41=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 41. Reflective Origin} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^0 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> Tables&nbsp;42 and 43 show one way that the sign relations <math>L(\text{A})</math> and <math>L(\text{B})</math> can be extended in a reflective sense through the use of quotational devices, yielding the ''first order reflective extensions'', <math>\mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{A})</math> and <math>\mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{B}).</math> These extensions add one layer of HA signs and their objects to the sign relations <math>L(\text{A})</math> and <math>L(\text{B}),</math> respectively. The new triples specify that, for each <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}</math> in the set <math>\{ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle}, {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle}, {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle}, {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \},</math> the HA sign of the form <math>{}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}</math> connotes itself while denoting <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}.</math> <br> ===Table 42=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 42. Higher Ascent Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 43=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 43. Higher Ascent Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 44=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 44. Higher Import Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{HI}^1 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 45=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 45. Higher Import Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{HI}^1 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>\mathrm{Nom} \subseteq \mathrm{Den}_L \subseteq O \times S ~\text{such that}~ \mathrm{Nom} : O \to S.</math> |} {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>L' \subseteq O' \times S' \times I', ~\text{where}~ O' = O \cup O_1 ~\text{and}~ S' = S \cup S_1.</math> |} {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>\mathrm{Nom}_1 : O_1 \to S_1 ~\text{such that}~ \mathrm{Nom}_1 : x \mapsto {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}.</math> |} In the present context an application of the arch notation, for example, <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle},</math> is read on analogy with the use of any other functional notation, for example, <math>f(x),</math> where <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} f {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is the name of a function <math>f,</math> <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} f(~) {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is the context of its application, <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} x {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is the name of an argument <math>x,</math> and where the functional abstraction <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} x \mapsto f(x) {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is just another name for the function <math>f.</math> It is clear that some form of functional abstraction is being invoked in the above definition of <math>\mathrm{Nom}_1.</math> Otherwise, the expression <math>x \mapsto {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}</math> would indicate a constant function, one that maps every <math>x</math> in its domain to the same code or sign for the letter <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} x {}^{\prime\prime}.</math> But if this is allowed, then it appears to pose a dilemma, either to invoke a more powerful concept of functional abstraction than the concept being defined, or else to attempt an improper definition of the naming function in terms of itself. Although it appears that this form of functional abstraction is being used to define the CRE in terms of itself, trying to extend the definition of the naming function in terms of a definition that is already assumed to be available, in reality this only uses a finite function, a finite table look up, to define the naming function for an unlimited number of higher order signs. In CL contexts, especially in the Lisp tradition, the quotation operator is recognized as an &ldquo;evaluation inhibitor&rdquo; and implemented as a function that maps each syntactic element into its unique numerical identifier or ''gödel number''. Perhaps one should pause to marvel at the fact that a form of delay, deference, and interruption akin to an inhibition should be associated with the creation of signs that refer in meaningful ways. On reflection, though, the connection between attribution and inhibition, or acknowledgment and deference, begins to appear less remarkable, and in time it can even be understood as natural and necessary. For one thing, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories of mental functioning have long recognized that symbol formation and symptom formation are closely akin, being the twin founders of civilization and many of its discontents. For another thing, the following etymology can be rather instructive: The English word ''memory'' derives from the Latin ''memor'' for ''mindful'', which is akin to the Latin ''mora'' for ''delay'', the Greek ''mermera'' for ''care'', and the Sanskrit ''smarati'' for ''he remembers''. To explore the verbal complex a bit further, it merits remembering that the ideas of ''merit'' and ''membership'', besides being connected with the due proportions, earned shares, and just deserts that are parceled out on parchment, are also tied up with the particular kind of care that is needed to take account of things part for part. (The Latin ''merere'' for ''earn'' or ''deserve'', along with ''membrana'' for ''skin'' or ''parchment'' and ''memor'' for ''mindful'', are all akin to the Greek ''merizein'' for ''divide'' and ''meros'' for ''part''.) Although the voices of psychology and etymology are seldom heard at this depth in the wilderness of formal abstraction, I think it is worth heeding them on this point. In CL environments of the Pascal variety there are several different ways that higher order signs are created. In these settings higher order signs, or signs for referring to signs as objects, can be implemented as the ''codes'' that serve as numerical identifiers of characters or the ''pointers'' that serve as accessory indices of symbolic expressions. But not all the signs that are needed for referring to other signs can be constructed by means of quotation. Other forms of higher order signs have to be generated ''de novo'', that is, constructed independently of previous successions and introduced directly into their appropriate orders. Among other things, this obviates the usual strategy for telling the order of a sign by counting its quota of quotation marks. Failing the chances of exploiting such a measure in absolute terms, and in the absence of a natural order for the construction of signs, the relative orders of signs can be assessed only by examining the complex network of denotative and connotative relationships that connect them, or the gaps that arise when they fail to do so. In a CL context this often occurs when a constant is declared equal or a variable is set equal to a quoted character, as in the following sequence of Pascal expressions: {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <code>const comma = ',' ;</code> |- | <code>var x; x := comma ;</code> |} In this passage, the sign &ldquo;<code>comma</code>&rdquo; is made to denote whatever it is that sign &ldquo;<code>','</code>&rdquo; denotes, and the variable <math>x</math> is then set equal to this value. rmcqotc2ybze089094ogqn2wo7pw32m 2830225 2830211 2026-09-01T16:00:10Z JonAwbrey 29537 resize tables 44 & 45 style="font-size:large; text-align:center; width:70%" 2830225 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Sign Relations== ===Display 1=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Display 1.png|220px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" cellpadding="8" | <math>\begin{array}{ccl} O & = & \text{Object Domain} \\[6pt] S & = & \text{Sign Domain} \\[6pt] I & = & \text{Interpretant Domain} \end{array}</math> |} ===Display 2=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Display 2.png|440px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" cellpadding="8" | <math>\begin{array}{cclcl} O & = & \{ \text{Ann}, \text{Bob} \} & = & \{ \mathrm{A}, \mathrm{B} \} \\[6pt] S & = & \{ \text{“Ann”}, \text{“Bob”}, \text{“I”}, \text{“you”} \} & = & \{ \text{“A”}, \text{“B”}, \text{“i”}, \text{“u”} \} \\[6pt] I & = & \{ \text{“Ann”}, \text{“Bob”}, \text{“I”}, \text{“you”} \} & = & \{ \text{“A”}, \text{“B”}, \text{“i”}, \text{“u”} \} \end{array}</math> |} ===Table 1=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Twin Tables LA LB 2.0.png|800px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" style="width:80%" | width="50%" | {| align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-bottom:1px solid black; border-left:1px solid black; border-right:1px solid black; border-top:1px solid black; text-align:center; width:90%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 1a. Sign Relation of Interpreter A}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:ghostwhite" | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |} | width="50%" | {| align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-bottom:1px solid black; border-left:1px solid black; border-right:1px solid black; border-top:1px solid black; text-align:center; width:90%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 1b. Sign Relation of Interpreter B}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:ghostwhite" | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |} |} ==Higher Order Sign Relations &bull; Examples== ===Table 36=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 36. Semantics for Higher Order Signs}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object Denoted}</math> | <math>\text{Equivalent Signs}</math> |- | width="50%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | width="50%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“A”} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“B”} \end{matrix}</math> |- | width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{“A”} \\ \text{“B”} \\ \text{“i”} \\ \text{“u”} \end{matrix}</math> | width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“A”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“B”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“i”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“u”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>x, ~ {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}, ~ {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}, ~ {}^{\langle\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle\rangle}, ~ \ldots</math> |} The intent of this succession, as interpreted in FL environments, is that <math>{}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}</math> denotes or refers to <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle},</math> which denotes or refers to <math>x.</math> Moreover, its computational realization, as implemented in CL environments, is that <math>{}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}</math> addresses or evaluates to <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle},</math> which addresses or evaluates to <math>x.</math> <br> ===Table 37=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 37. Sign Relation Containing a Higher Order Sign}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \text{s} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{s} \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \text{t} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 38=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 38. Sign Relation for a Succession of Higher Order Signs (1)}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} x \\[2pt] {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 39=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 39. Sign Relation for a Succession of Higher Order Signs (2)}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} x \\[2pt] s_1 \\[2pt] s_2 \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} s_1 \\[2pt] s_2 \\[2pt] s_3 \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 40=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 40. Reflective Origin} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^0 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 41=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 41. Reflective Origin} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^0 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> Tables&nbsp;42 and 43 show one way that the sign relations <math>L(\text{A})</math> and <math>L(\text{B})</math> can be extended in a reflective sense through the use of quotational devices, yielding the ''first order reflective extensions'', <math>\mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{A})</math> and <math>\mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{B}).</math> These extensions add one layer of HA signs and their objects to the sign relations <math>L(\text{A})</math> and <math>L(\text{B}),</math> respectively. The new triples specify that, for each <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}</math> in the set <math>\{ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle}, {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle}, {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle}, {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \},</math> the HA sign of the form <math>{}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle}</math> connotes itself while denoting <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}.</math> <br> ===Table 42=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 42. Higher Ascent Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 43=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 43. Higher Ascent Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 44=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:70%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 44. Higher Import Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{HI}^1 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 45=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:70%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 45. Higher Import Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{HI}^1 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>\mathrm{Nom} \subseteq \mathrm{Den}_L \subseteq O \times S ~\text{such that}~ \mathrm{Nom} : O \to S.</math> |} {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>L' \subseteq O' \times S' \times I', ~\text{where}~ O' = O \cup O_1 ~\text{and}~ S' = S \cup S_1.</math> |} {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <math>\mathrm{Nom}_1 : O_1 \to S_1 ~\text{such that}~ \mathrm{Nom}_1 : x \mapsto {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}.</math> |} In the present context an application of the arch notation, for example, <math>{}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle},</math> is read on analogy with the use of any other functional notation, for example, <math>f(x),</math> where <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} f {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is the name of a function <math>f,</math> <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} f(~) {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is the context of its application, <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} x {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is the name of an argument <math>x,</math> and where the functional abstraction <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} x \mapsto f(x) {}^{\prime\prime}</math> is just another name for the function <math>f.</math> It is clear that some form of functional abstraction is being invoked in the above definition of <math>\mathrm{Nom}_1.</math> Otherwise, the expression <math>x \mapsto {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle}</math> would indicate a constant function, one that maps every <math>x</math> in its domain to the same code or sign for the letter <math>{}^{\backprime\backprime} x {}^{\prime\prime}.</math> But if this is allowed, then it appears to pose a dilemma, either to invoke a more powerful concept of functional abstraction than the concept being defined, or else to attempt an improper definition of the naming function in terms of itself. Although it appears that this form of functional abstraction is being used to define the CRE in terms of itself, trying to extend the definition of the naming function in terms of a definition that is already assumed to be available, in reality this only uses a finite function, a finite table look up, to define the naming function for an unlimited number of higher order signs. In CL contexts, especially in the Lisp tradition, the quotation operator is recognized as an &ldquo;evaluation inhibitor&rdquo; and implemented as a function that maps each syntactic element into its unique numerical identifier or ''gödel number''. Perhaps one should pause to marvel at the fact that a form of delay, deference, and interruption akin to an inhibition should be associated with the creation of signs that refer in meaningful ways. On reflection, though, the connection between attribution and inhibition, or acknowledgment and deference, begins to appear less remarkable, and in time it can even be understood as natural and necessary. For one thing, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories of mental functioning have long recognized that symbol formation and symptom formation are closely akin, being the twin founders of civilization and many of its discontents. For another thing, the following etymology can be rather instructive: The English word ''memory'' derives from the Latin ''memor'' for ''mindful'', which is akin to the Latin ''mora'' for ''delay'', the Greek ''mermera'' for ''care'', and the Sanskrit ''smarati'' for ''he remembers''. To explore the verbal complex a bit further, it merits remembering that the ideas of ''merit'' and ''membership'', besides being connected with the due proportions, earned shares, and just deserts that are parceled out on parchment, are also tied up with the particular kind of care that is needed to take account of things part for part. (The Latin ''merere'' for ''earn'' or ''deserve'', along with ''membrana'' for ''skin'' or ''parchment'' and ''memor'' for ''mindful'', are all akin to the Greek ''merizein'' for ''divide'' and ''meros'' for ''part''.) Although the voices of psychology and etymology are seldom heard at this depth in the wilderness of formal abstraction, I think it is worth heeding them on this point. In CL environments of the Pascal variety there are several different ways that higher order signs are created. In these settings higher order signs, or signs for referring to signs as objects, can be implemented as the ''codes'' that serve as numerical identifiers of characters or the ''pointers'' that serve as accessory indices of symbolic expressions. But not all the signs that are needed for referring to other signs can be constructed by means of quotation. Other forms of higher order signs have to be generated ''de novo'', that is, constructed independently of previous successions and introduced directly into their appropriate orders. Among other things, this obviates the usual strategy for telling the order of a sign by counting its quota of quotation marks. Failing the chances of exploiting such a measure in absolute terms, and in the absence of a natural order for the construction of signs, the relative orders of signs can be assessed only by examining the complex network of denotative and connotative relationships that connect them, or the gaps that arise when they fail to do so. In a CL context this often occurs when a constant is declared equal or a variable is set equal to a quoted character, as in the following sequence of Pascal expressions: {| align="center" cellspacing="8" width="90%" | <code>const comma = ',' ;</code> |- | <code>var x; x := comma ;</code> |} In this passage, the sign &ldquo;<code>comma</code>&rdquo; is made to denote whatever it is that sign &ldquo;<code>','</code>&rdquo; denotes, and the variable <math>x</math> is then set equal to this value. s4wkuy4rcthema7eohbw2fndu7alg0p 2830446 2830225 2026-09-02T10:37:01Z JonAwbrey 29537 /* Higher Order Sign Relations &bull; Examples */ cleanup 2830446 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Sign Relations== ===Display 1=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Display 1.png|220px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" cellpadding="8" | <math>\begin{array}{ccl} O & = & \text{Object Domain} \\[6pt] S & = & \text{Sign Domain} \\[6pt] I & = & \text{Interpretant Domain} \end{array}</math> |} ===Display 2=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Display 2.png|440px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" cellpadding="8" | <math>\begin{array}{cclcl} O & = & \{ \text{Ann}, \text{Bob} \} & = & \{ \mathrm{A}, \mathrm{B} \} \\[6pt] S & = & \{ \text{“Ann”}, \text{“Bob”}, \text{“I”}, \text{“you”} \} & = & \{ \text{“A”}, \text{“B”}, \text{“i”}, \text{“u”} \} \\[6pt] I & = & \{ \text{“Ann”}, \text{“Bob”}, \text{“I”}, \text{“you”} \} & = & \{ \text{“A”}, \text{“B”}, \text{“i”}, \text{“u”} \} \end{array}</math> |} ===Table 1=== ====PNG==== {| align="center" cellpadding="10" | [[File:Sign Relation Twin Tables LA LB 2.0.png|800px]] |} ====LaTeX==== {| align="center" style="width:80%" | width="50%" | {| align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-bottom:1px solid black; border-left:1px solid black; border-right:1px solid black; border-top:1px solid black; text-align:center; width:90%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 1a. Sign Relation of Interpreter A}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:ghostwhite" | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |} | width="50%" | {| align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-bottom:1px solid black; border-left:1px solid black; border-right:1px solid black; border-top:1px solid black; text-align:center; width:90%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 1b. Sign Relation of Interpreter B}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:ghostwhite" | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | style="border-bottom:1px solid black; width:33%" | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“A”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{A}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> | <math>\text{“u”}</math> |- | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | style="border-top:1px solid black" | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“B”}</math> |- | <math>\mathrm{B}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> | <math>\text{“i”}</math> |} |} ==Higher Order Sign Relations &bull; Examples== ===Table 36=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 36. Semantics for Higher Order Signs}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object Denoted}</math> | <math>\text{Equivalent Signs}</math> |- | width="50%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | width="50%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“A”} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“B”} \end{matrix}</math> |- | width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{“A”} \\ \text{“B”} \\ \text{“i”} \\ \text{“u”} \end{matrix}</math> | width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“A”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“B”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“i”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} & = & {}^{\langle} \text{“u”} {}^{\rangle} & = & \text{“}{}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle}\text{”} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 37=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 37. Sign Relation Containing a Higher Order Sign}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \text{s} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{s} \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \text{t} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 38=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 38. Sign Relation for a Succession of Higher Order Signs (1)}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} x \\[2pt] {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} x {}^{\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] {}^{\langle\langle\langle} x {}^{\rangle\rangle\rangle} \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 39=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 39. Sign Relation for a Succession of Higher Order Signs (2)}</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} x \\[2pt] s_1 \\[2pt] s_2 \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} s_1 \\[2pt] s_2 \\[2pt] s_3 \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \\[2pt] \ldots \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 40=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 40. Reflective Origin} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^0 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 41=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 41. Reflective Origin} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^0 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 42=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 42. Higher Ascent Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 43=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:60%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 43. Higher Ascent Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{Ref}^1 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 44=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:70%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 44. Higher Import Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{HI}^1 L(\text{A})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> ===Table 45=== ====PNG==== ====LaTeX==== <br> {| align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:large;text-align:center;width:70%" |+ style="height:30px" | <math>\text{Table 45. Higher Import Sign Relation} ~ \mathrm{HI}^1 L(\text{B})</math> |- style="height:40px; background:#f0f0ff" | <math>\text{Object}</math> | <math>\text{Sign}</math> | <math>\text{Interpretant}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \\ \text{A} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \\ \text{B} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{A} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{A} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{u} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |- | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} & ) \\ ( & \text{B} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & , & {}^{\langle} \text{i} {}^{\rangle} & ) \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> | valign="bottom" width="33%" | <math>\begin{matrix} {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \\ {}^{\langle} \text{B} {}^{\rangle} \end{matrix}</math> |} <br> jqtdxef9t6btdphtm3ueuvo5plamum5 1 331750 2830378 2829992 2026-09-02T04:17:43Z U3285438 3103750 /* Considering Rogers' person-centered approach */ new section 2830378 wikitext text/x-wiki == Topic development == Impressive work! I will be egarly waiting to read your book chapter. [[User:U3281503|U3281503]] ([[User talk:U3281503|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3281503|contribs]]) 22:46, 31 August 2026 (UTC) == Considering Rogers' person-centered approach == Hey there, Great job developing you topic, I enjoyed reading through your book chapter so far! I wondered if you have considered including concepts from Carl Rogers' (1957) [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|person-centered approach to therapy]]. Rogers' approach heavily emphasises the importance of the therapeutic alliance in facilitating client's personal growth and psychological well-being. I think the principles of [[wikipedia:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]], congruence and [[wikipedia:Active_listening|empathetic listening]] may be of relevance to your chapter! Here are some links/references that might help: - https://www.simplypsychology.org/client-centred-therapy.html - Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. ''Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21''(2), 95–103. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0045357 https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045357] Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 04:17, 2 September 2026 (UTC) nuacdvt648zbpbv98barf61vhi8i2da 0 331756 2830202 2830138 2026-09-01T12:16:31Z MathXplore 2888076 added [[Category:Neuroscience]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2830202 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience</big> == == Summary == ''Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience'' aligns to the topics and objectives of introductory behavioral neuroscience courses taught in psychology, biology, neuroscience, and similar departments. This offering is intended for undergraduates with no presumed college-level science coursework, and presents the foundational principles of brain-behavior-environment interactions. * [https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-behavioral-neuroscience OpenStax Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience] (original content). Available as pdf or web view. * [https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/introduction-to-behavioral-neuroscience/ OpenStax Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience audiobook] Available as audio textbook. [[Category:Neuroscience]] geuuy5xavwouizvrwxzk25l99ina6o8 0 331757 2830201 2830140 2026-09-01T12:16:25Z MathXplore 2888076 added [[Category:Microbiology]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2830201 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Microbiology</big> == == Summary == ''Microbiology'' covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. ''Microbiology''’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs. * [https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology OpenStax Microbiology] (original content). Available as pdf or web view. * [https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/microbiology/ OpenStax Microbiology audiobook] Available as audio textbook. [[Category:Microbiology]] 9x6vw26wuwwkrphhhwfqnx0d8795xz5 6 331764 2830206 2026-09-01T13:41:43Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260831 - 20260829) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830206 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260831 - 20260829) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 5k6ev1c2d9b0q12sw86jrzdkl344uvi 6 331765 2830207 2026-09-01T13:42:49Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260831 - 20260829) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830207 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260831 - 20260829) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 8xkolodasvclqqp5rct0g1554ypwtyd 6 331766 2830209 2026-09-01T13:44:33Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830209 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} qgb5ndhj8zujolhbfaa8pk92n1xnd61 6 331767 2830210 2026-09-01T13:45:11Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830210 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} d3w00pu7y87c7vov4uaazav5dvtmu6o 6 331768 2830238 2026-09-01T16:28:08Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260831 - 20260825) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830238 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260831 - 20260825) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 3x20vzspi13gb2crg39dk2e0bdzpgkb 6 331769 2830240 2026-09-01T16:31:31Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830240 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} f8fj06plf3cw79mq759se8dbkxy2741 2 331770 2830272 2026-09-01T18:08:38Z Dick Bos 24466 first lines 2830272 wikitext text/x-wiki [[David Ricardo]] (1772–1823) is one of the most important economists of the classical period, and his thoughts and influences are still frequently debated in recent times. For instance by Nat Dyer (2024): ''Ricardo's Dream : How Economists Forgot the Real World and Led us Astray.'' I would like to introduce the works of Ricardo here. * First of all: ''[[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits]]'' (1815) ift4iy9x8eun3tbo1z86u74t55ouibq 0 331771 2830276 2026-09-01T18:33:37Z Dick Bos 24466 first lines 2830276 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to the pages about '''David Ricardo'''. David Ricardo (1772–1823) was an English stockbroker, economist and politician. He made particularly significant contributions to the development of economic science and is often mentioned in the same breath as the founder of economics, [[Adam Smith]]. He maintained close contact with contemporaries such as Malthus and the Mills, father and son. He was born in London. His father, a Sephardic Jew of Portuguese origin, was a successful stockbroker. David Ricardo received little formal education. He started working with his father at the age of 14. (...) == Works == After his (early) retirement he developed an interest in economic theory. He read Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations'' and subsequently published some pamphlets: * ''The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes'' (1810) * ''[[Ricardo/An Essay on Profits|An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock]]'' (1815, often shortly named ''(An) Essay on Profits'') A few years later his Magnum Opus was first published: * ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (1817) == Method == == Addition resources == * [[:w:en:David Ricardo|David Ricardo]]—at English Wikipedia == Sources and further reading == hdntnvcgqod35lhgf40rjn5tu4mvj0k 2830277 2830276 2026-09-01T18:35:17Z Dick Bos 24466 corr 2830277 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to the pages about '''David Ricardo'''. David Ricardo (1772–1823) was an English stockbroker, economist and politician. He made particularly significant contributions to the development of economic science and is often mentioned in the same breath as the founder of economics, [[Adam Smith]]. He maintained close contact with contemporaries such as Malthus and the Mills, father and son. He was born in London. His father, a Sephardic Jew of Portuguese origin, was a successful stockbroker. David Ricardo received little formal education. He started working with his father at the age of 14. (...) == Works == After his (early) retirement he developed an interest in economic theory. He read Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations'' and subsequently published some pamphlets: * ''The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes'' (1810) * ''[[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits|An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock]]'' (1815, often shortly named ''(An) Essay on Profits'') A few years later his Magnum Opus was first published: * ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (1817) == Method == == Addition resources == * [[:w:en:David Ricardo|David Ricardo]]—at English Wikipedia == Sources and further reading == 39zhyt1t4owiwvhjlfic758cqwap3dz 2 331772 2830281 2026-09-01T18:56:11Z JimKillock 330368 Created page with "'''1. A Conversation about School'''<ref>What is the difference between ''schola'' and ''ludus''? Any place where boys or young men are accustomed to gather to be taught can be called a ''schola''. But not every ''schola'' is a ''ludus'', since ''ludus'' denotes the place where the elements — i.e. reading, writing, etc. — are taught (''ludus litterarum'', ''litterarius''). Nevertheless the ancients did not hesitate at all to call indiscriminately both ''ludi'' and ''..." 2830281 wikitext text/x-wiki '''1. A Conversation about School'''<ref>What is the difference between ''schola'' and ''ludus''? Any place where boys or young men are accustomed to gather to be taught can be called a ''schola''. But not every ''schola'' is a ''ludus'', since ''ludus'' denotes the place where the elements — i.e. reading, writing, etc. — are taught (''ludus litterarum'', ''litterarius''). Nevertheless the ancients did not hesitate at all to call indiscriminately both ''ludi'' and ''scholae'' the places where the liberal arts (''the humanities''), which formed as it were the elements of higher studies, were taught (''ludus ingenuarum litterarum''). But an academy of arts (''a university'') must be called a ''schola'', not a ''ludus''.</ref> '''Q.''' Hey, where are you hurrying to (where are you rushing off to), Sempronius? '''S.''' To school, Quintus; I'm off to class. '''Q.''' What? I thought you'd left [school] long ago — you're still at school (''you still go to'')? '''S.''' But I won't part from my teachers until next month, in August. '''Q.''' Whose school do you attend? '''S.''' I go to the school that a certain teacher opened recently, where very many boys of the suburb gather. '''Q.''' What's his name? Where does he come from? How long has he had (kept, run) the school? '''S.''' His name is Tiburtius, a German by nation, who first, as they say, taught boys at Brussels (''had a school''), then ran a school at Antwerp, and finally came here. '''Q.''' But why does your father entrust you to the teaching of a foreigner (''to send you to a foreigner's school'')? Wouldn't our own schoolmasters teach you much better? As a boy I sat under Caius (I had Caius for my teacher — ''to go to the school of''), who still flourishes with the reputation of an outstanding teacher. '''S.''' Who the teachers are, I truly do not care in the least (''it is all the same to me''), since, whatever school he sits in, a boy who is learning has just as much to put up with. '''Q.''' Is that teacher so bitterly strict? '''S.''' With the utmost harshness indeed — one who does not spare the rod: whomever he catches laughing or chattering gets thrashed (punished) without mercy. Ugh, how content I'll be if I ever finish school; then at last I'll be free and freed from all force and compulsion (''constraint''). '''Q.''' Wait patiently, my good fellow, and keep a brave heart, since you have many companions in your labors. For man, as Sallust says, drew toil as his lot (was allotted toil). Or do you suppose that those who attend the military school, the gladiators' school, the school of lyre-players, the workshop of eloquence, the academy of arts, do not sweat likewise? So take heart, my friend (''take comfort''), and consider this too: is not the man who has once been schooled in letters (a man polished by schooling) far more easily going to see to his own affairs in this world (''make his fortune'')? Besides, one who is well trained in the arts (''instructed in the sciences'') — trained to speak, to speak Latin — ah, how splendidly he can pride himself (''be proud'')! What is more, never, as long as you live, will you escape school by running away: leaving one, you'll enter another. Is not the whole of human life — which you do not yet know — a school, one that teaches true wisdom, each person in his own way, more than any formal discipline does? For very many grow wiser with experience as their instructress (''at the school of''), than which no discipline is more excellent; others [grow wise] with poverty as their teacher (''at the school [of]''), which through adversity and the torments of fortune teaches us patience. But enough of this, lest by philosophizing any further I become a nuisance to you. Say — does that teacher run his school by himself? '''S.''' Not alone, of course: he has several assistants, among whom the various subjects are distributed (assigned). We have teachers most suited to teaching (''we have''), each truly worthy in his own art (''strong in his branch'') — unless perhaps the one who professes Greek (''the Greek professor'') seems less fit to keep the school [in hand]. '''Q.''' What each man himself knows, he can pass on to others (''to give''). Who teaches Latin among you? Who imparts to you the rules of grammar (''to give grammar'')? What teacher of rhetoric (or of speaking) does your class<ref>Quintilian says: "My teachers had distributed the boys into ''classes''." — the first, second, our, your class. When the place where teaching happens is meant = ''auditorium'', e.g. ''subsellia hujus auditorii'' (''the benches of this class''). Of the instruction itself we say ''schola'', e.g. ''Magister hodie scholam non habet'' (''gives no class today''). ''Hodie scholam non habemus'' (today we have no class). ''Inter scholam fabulari non licet'' (''during class'').</ref> use? What is its method of teaching or manner of instruction (''method'')? Whom do you have to expound history (''the history professor'')? Doesn't the same man also teach geography? '''S.''' The very same, who is most skilled in history (who is very strong in history — ''who is very strong''). He himself wrote a book on Belgian affairs. '''Q.''' What teacher do you have in mathematics (who teaches mathematics)? Who is the professor of philosophy? Who imparts literature to you (the history of literature)? '''S.''' Caius, who is so learned that he can teach all the subjects at once. He too recently brought out a written handbook on mathematics (''a manual of''). '''Q.''' Who instructs you in religion (''gives you religion'')? Who teaches you rhetoric (imparts the rules of speaking)? Who teaches you the lyre, riding, arms (''music, fencing'')? How many boys are taught music, riding, arms (learn music)? Who instructs you in gymnastics? '''S.''' Demetrius trains us in swordplay (''to fence with the foil''); I don't trouble to be taught riding (''to take riding lessons''). '''Q.''' Aha, you speak clean, good Latin; who taught you to speak (''to give the lessons'')? '''S.''' Two teachers schooled me in the Latin language (taught me). '''Q.''' So what do you make of your school? '''S.''' The teaching of religion and of the other subjects is so complete it leaves hardly anything [to be desired] (''the teaching — leaves nothing to be desired''); but the teaching of Greek, as I said, leaves much [wanting]. '''Q.''' Who... '''S.''' Whoa, Quintus, don't hold me up — I'll answer you another time; for unless I run briskly now, the class will already be over, or actually dismissed, before I get there. qqwddpaeubup71th8jj3yil1q0mcstk 2 331773 2830284 2026-09-01T19:17:40Z JimKillock 330368 Created page with "'''4. On Writing.''' '''M.''' Get yourselves ready (prepare) to write; bring out your notebooks<ref>''Commentarius'': a schoolboy's notebook (''cahier d'écolier''). Quintilian.</ref> or rather your rough-books.<ref>''Adversaria, -orum'': a rough draft (''brouillon''); also ''libellus liturarius''.</ref> I will dictate; you will take down the dictation with pen or stylus (commit it to writing, set it down in writing). Come, be quick (hurry, look sharp, away with delay..." 2830284 wikitext text/x-wiki '''4. On Writing.''' '''M.''' Get yourselves ready (prepare) to write; bring out your notebooks<ref>''Commentarius'': a schoolboy's notebook (''cahier d'écolier''). Quintilian.</ref> or rather your rough-books.<ref>''Adversaria, -orum'': a rough draft (''brouillon''); also ''libellus liturarius''.</ref> I will dictate; you will take down the dictation with pen or stylus (commit it to writing, set it down in writing). Come, be quick (hurry, look sharp, away with delay — ''well then, get a move on'')! First (''first'') scratch down what I dictate in your rough-books or on your writing-slates (''slates'') (fling it quickly onto the paper); afterward copy it out more neatly from the rough-books into your notebooks (write it up in your notebooks — ''in fair copy''). There's no need, of course (''naturally''), to write out every single word in full when drafting (''to write in full''); abbreviations and signs are enough (or: it suffices to write in abbreviations and symbols — ''abbreviations and signs, figures''). Thus a total is never written out in full, but noted [with figures] (''with numerals''). The letters of certain proper names, however, I will trace out for you beforehand on this board, and you will copy them exactly (imitate them). In the rough-books, moreover, correct as much as you please, write between the lines (''between the lines''), delete words or letters written incorrectly (blot out, strike out, remove, cancel — ''cross out''), use larger or smaller letters, ignore the punctuation — none of which concerns me in the least (''which is completely indifferent to me''); that is your business, and I don't trouble myself with it (''that's your affair, it's all the same to me''). Nor do I demand that in drafting (''in rough'') you write handsomely (finely, gracefully, in elegant letters); but that you copy everything into your notebooks in a neat and pleasing hand (''fine handwriting''), correctly and properly (''without a fault and correctly''), with the punctuation observed, and so thoroughly that not a single blot or flaw (''no error'') is to be found in the fair copy (''copy'') — that I certainly do expect and require. For what could be more odious to a writing-master (''writing teacher'') than to read through exercises written full of blunders (''full of mistakes''), where one writes "Antwerp" with a ''b'', another his father's name with a ''d'' (''with d''); where this boy doubles the ''t'' in the word ''petere'', that one the ''l'' in the word ''nolit'' (''with two l's''); where — to put it briefly — the rules of spelling have been neglected and scorned with an ignorance and carelessness greater than can be forgiven (''unpardonable''). What is to stop each of you from carefully going over his own exercise (''revising it'') before he hands it in? The art of writing — commit this to memory (note it, drive it home — ''mark this'') — is not the least of the arts. As the man is, so is his speech, his conversation, or his manner of writing (''the style is the man''). To write correctly and elegantly is an honor to a man; to write corruptly, badly, and full of errors, a disgrace. Or would it not, I ask, be a disgrace to anyone if he could not even write his own name correctly (''without a mistake'') in a book (inscribe it in a book) or sign a document — let alone compose a letter? And far more to be lamented is it if someone is entirely ignorant of letters (does not know his letters, does not know how to form letters — ''does not know how to write''). Granted, for a man advanced in years learning to trace letters may seem none too easy; but it is useful in any case, and never too late (''too late''). He will then at least be able, whenever he sees fit, to send letters to Rome (''write to Rome'') or to Brussels, or to send [word] to America (write), when he needs to inform someone living there about some matter. But someone may object that Socrates himself, the most famous (wisest) of philosophers, wrote not a single letter (''wrote nothing''); that Plato committed his thoughts and sayings to writing (set them down, preserved them in writing — ''note them down''). I grant it; but that is no real argument (''but that proves nothing at all''). Can it be inferred from the fact that he wrote nothing that he himself was wholly ignorant of letters (''of how to write'')? For the rest, since with good reason (for just causes — ''for good reasons'') I would fault none of the ancients (''blame'') for not knowing their letters — yet what excuse could that man bring forward (what could he say in his own defense) who, in this age of ours of culture and civilization (''of culture and civilization''), which abounds in schools and teachers, stands alone in Israel, as it were a stranger! I grant, indeed, that even though today so great an eagerness to write is everywhere astir and thriving (''a passion for writing''), still it is not given to everyone (''it is not granted to each man'') to embrace the record of great deeds (''a work of history'') in one or several books (''to write it''), to pursue philosophy in Latin (''to write on it — in Latin''), to compose the life of some man eminent in statesmanship (''great statesman'') (''to write the biography''), to wield a combative and, as it were, warlike pen (''to engage in polemics''), or to write up the daily papers (public records) (write articles for the journals — ''to write newspaper articles''; send one's writings to the press — ''to publish''): but that anyone should be able to write letters and whatever pertains to daily life is certainly fitting and necessary. You, however, ought to prize the art of writing so highly, and to train yourselves in it daily with such care and diligence, that each of you could, with honor, serve as secretary to the king himself, should it ever be required (secretary for correspondence, the king's scribe, an amanuensis — ''to be the secretary''). But enough of this (''but that's enough''). You will also rule a margin on the paper three fingers wide on the left, and let there be the same blank space at the top (at the head) and at the bottom (at the foot). Be quick (''fast'') in drafting (''rough copy''), more careful (slower) in copying out — for which I will give you more time (room) than will be needed. Beware, then, of doing it in a hasty and reckless way (''to rush''). For whoever writes badly, let him know that — while the rest are dismissed — he alone must copy the whole thing out afresh (write it out, transcribe it — ''recopy it''). So heed me as a friend giving advice (''a friend's counsel''). And you, William, afterward gather up the collected notebooks and set them down here on the desk; corrected, I will return them to you tomorrow (''to hand back''). Come now, get to it (do it, then — ''to work, then'')! 8cmoicvxotxtqj285a29zc6t3ub9weu 6 331774 2830287 2026-09-01T20:15:17Z U3281503 3106990 2830287 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 1 331775 2830319 2026-09-01T23:46:38Z Michael Ten 654933 /* graphic image */ new section 2830319 wikitext text/x-wiki == graphic image == is such a graphic image really necessary? could we say something like... if you want to see a graphic image.. click here or put a disclaimer at the top? i am not sure such a shock image has value for everyone. i realize this is meant to be educational... but it may detract from the educational value for some. limitless peace. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 23:46, 1 September 2026 (UTC) l26jaupo68y3aqbfb7w6wqilxvwz2rx 2 331776 2830329 2026-09-02T00:54:16Z U3270398 3108645 Added about me info 2830329 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. * (UC eportfolio link) == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # '''Direct edit to a book chapter:''' # '''Talk page comment:''' # '''UCLearn discussion post:''' 9xmrwczdpq4owr1kfdq0ddu44c2i8aq 2830331 2830329 2026-09-02T00:56:39Z U3270398 3108645 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ 2830331 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. * (UC eportfolio link) == Book chapter I'm working on == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # Direct edit to a book chapter: # Talk page comment: # UCLearn discussion post: 1gcj9p5elddu57c3z8ahy117jiseung 2830332 2830331 2026-09-02T00:59:32Z U3270398 3108645 /* About me */ 2830332 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. == Book chapter I'm working on == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # Direct edit to a book chapter: # Talk page comment: # UCLearn discussion post: rw179mvug5yiu06klesalnd5erd0i5b 2830350 2830332 2026-09-02T02:00:04Z U3270398 3108645 /* Social contributions */ Summarised first social contribution 2830350 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. == Book chapter I'm working on == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # '''Direct edit to another book chapter''': Populated the empty ''External links'' section of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion (2020)]] with two relevant resources, and expanded the ''See also'' section from two entries to six by adding links to two Wikipedia articles and two related book chapters [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Coping_and_emotion&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the difference] # Talk page comment: # UCLearn discussion post: 0qgopijytagbnf2ewpuy9pm65e7pbvp 2830352 2830350 2026-09-02T02:25:39Z U3270398 3108645 /* Social contributions */ Added second social contribution 2830352 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. == Book chapter I'm working on == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # '''Direct edit to another book chapter''': Populated the empty ''External links'' section of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion (2020)]] with two relevant resources, and expanded the ''See also'' section from two entries to six by adding links to two Wikipedia articles and two related book chapters [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Coping_and_emotion&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the difference] # '''Talk page comment''': Provided peer feedback on the talk page of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Alcohol use for emotion regulation (2026)]], suggesting that the two academic sources listed under See also be moved into References with in-text citation, that the interoception article could support the underdeveloped alternative strategies section, and that a Wikipedia link be added to See also to cover the second required internal link type [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the diff] # UCLearn discussion post: k2ni1g9k74a5bj0omxn5054ps8gcm6c 2830357 2830352 2026-09-02T03:06:11Z U3270398 3108645 /* Social contributions */ Added final social contribution 2830357 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. == Book chapter I'm working on == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # '''Direct edit to another book chapter''': Populated the empty ''External links'' section of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion (2020)]] with two relevant resources, and expanded the ''See also'' section from two entries to six by adding links to two Wikipedia articles and two related book chapters [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Coping_and_emotion&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the difference] # '''Talk page comment''': Provided peer feedback on the talk page of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Alcohol use for emotion regulation (2026)]], suggesting that the two academic sources listed under See also be moved into References with in-text citation, that the interoception article could support the underdeveloped alternative strategies section, and that a Wikipedia link be added to See also to cover the second required internal link type [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the difference] # '''UCLearn discussion post''': Replied to a classmate's request for feedback on their chapter about scarcity versus abundance mindsets, offering the manufactured scarcity of marketing tactics as evidence that scarcity may be state-like rather than a fixed mindset, and noting two fixes in their plan: an uncited reference directly relevant to their research question, and a missing See also section [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458124 See the post] nd8igusgc8lzgyjbdk1hkcwtf12a15o 2830358 2830357 2026-09-02T03:08:13Z U3270398 3108645 /* Social contributions */ 2830358 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm Tegan. I'm a third-year undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, and I'm currently studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and emotion]] (7124). Alongside study, I've worked part-time as a pharmacy assistant for almost five years. It puts me in contact with people from all walks of life and with every scale of health problem, from a minor complaint through to life-saving medication, and I've found that studying psychology changes how I do that work. Understanding people is most of the job. Like most people, I've always found psychology interesting. What pushed me toward studying psychology properly was seeing how often dualistic thinking still shapes much of what our society believes about health, illness, and the mind. I wanted a way of understanding people that doesn't begin by dividing them in two. I'm particularly interested in [[w:Health psychology|health psychology]] and [[w:Neuropsychology|neuropsychology]], as well as [[w:Oneirology|oneirology]], which is how I arrived at my chapter topic. After I graduate I hope to go on to further study and qualify as a psychologist or mental health social worker. I haven't settled on a focus yet, but I'm drawn to areas where a holistic approach might help and where traditional methods struggle. Either because getting better may be a matter of life and death, as in rehabilitaion for [[w:Addiction|addiction]] and [[w:Suicide prevention|suicide prevention]], or because the person may not get better at all, such as [[w:Palliative care|palliative care]] for terminal illness. I think we badly need more psychologists/social workers and more research in those areas, and i would like to be the kind of person I'd want around if I were ever in that position. == Book chapter I'm working on == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving: How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?]] == Social contributions == # '''Direct edit to another book chapter''': Populated the empty ''External links'' section of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion (2020)]] with two relevant resources, and expanded the ''See also'' section from two entries to six by adding links to two Wikipedia articles and two related book chapters [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Coping_and_emotion&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the difference] # '''Talk page comment''': Provided peer feedback on the talk page of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Alcohol use for emotion regulation (2026)]], suggesting that the two academic sources listed under ''See also'' be moved into ''References'' with in-text citation, that the interoception article could support the underdeveloped alternative strategies section, and that a Wikipedia link be added to ''See also'' to cover the second required internal link type [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=NEW&oldid=OLD See the difference] # '''UCLearn discussion post''': Replied to a classmate's request for feedback on their chapter about scarcity versus abundance mindsets, offering the manufactured scarcity of marketing tactics as evidence that scarcity may be state-like rather than a fixed mindset, and noting two fixes in their plan: an uncited reference directly relevant to their research question, and a missing ''See also'' section [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458124 See the post] 4crtuhk3syuyvfqodcf719h2l5n306n 1 331777 2830400 2026-09-02T05:21:21Z U3285438 3103750 /* Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning */ new section 2830400 wikitext text/x-wiki == Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning == Hey there, Great job on developing your topic, I enjoyed reading your book chapter so far! I wondered whether you had considered incorporating concepts from Pavlov's [[wikipedia:Classical_conditioning|classical conditioning]], even briefly, to help contextualise fear-conditioning. From my understanding, fear-conditioning is a specific form of classical conditioning, so including Pavlov's theory may be relevant to your chapter. Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 05:21, 2 September 2026 (UTC) 1tlwh6nql2d6an8ed2z5xv7xdrqtp1x 0 331778 2830420 2026-09-02T06:11:27Z Jtneill 10242 Created page with "== Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see boxes above or answers in Table 1 below. 1. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a..." 2830420 wikitext text/x-wiki == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see boxes above or answers in Table 1 below. 1. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''” |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 2. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 3. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 4. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Being fit is important to me.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 5. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> '''6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 7. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 8. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 10. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 11. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 12. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] e1agys1gg7pxmgy86al0ftk6rb9wt72 2830421 2830420 2026-09-02T06:17:07Z Jtneill 10242 2830421 wikitext text/x-wiki == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. <div style="text-align: center;"> ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' </div> Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|psychological needs]] (Tutorial 4). 1. <quiz display=simple> {Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''” |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 2. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 3. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 4. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Being fit is important to me.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 5. '''Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> '''6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?''' <quiz display=simple> {“'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''” |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> 7. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 8. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 10. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 11. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> 12. '''Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?''' <quiz display=simple> {'''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] k9pd92pmhxn1k28kdy518xazt80fn71 2830422 2830421 2026-09-02T06:25:21Z Jtneill 10242 Improve layout 2830422 wikitext text/x-wiki == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. <div style="text-align: center;"> ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' </div> Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|psychological needs]] (Tutorial 4). ==Reason → Type== <quiz display=simple> {1. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''" |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {2. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {3. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {4. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Being fit is important to me.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {5. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> ==Type → Reason== <quiz display=simple> {7. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?<br> '''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {8. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?<br> '''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?<br> '''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {10. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?<br> '''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {11. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?<br> '''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {12. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?<br> '''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] cw3de2r9h8ix6lo6w9x3slq10dai82m 2830429 2830422 2026-09-02T08:06:44Z Jtneill 10242 Add box 2830429 wikitext text/x-wiki == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} <div style="text-align: center;"> ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|psychological needs]] (Tutorial 4). ==Reason → Type== <quiz display=simple> {1. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''" |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {2. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {3. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {4. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Being fit is important to me.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {5. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> ==Type → Reason== <quiz display=simple> {7. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?<br> '''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {8. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?<br> '''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?<br> '''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {10. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?<br> '''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {11. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?<br> '''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {12. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?<br> '''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] o5be7ue7kehwjw42j6pg9oowu9dscw9 2830430 2830429 2026-09-02T08:07:57Z Jtneill 10242 + References 2830430 wikitext text/x-wiki == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} <div style="text-align: center;"> ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|psychological needs]] (Tutorial 4). ==Reason → Type== <quiz display=simple> {1. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''" |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {2. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''My doctor told me I have to exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {3. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {4. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Being fit is important to me.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {5. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> ==Type → Reason== <quiz display=simple> {7. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?<br> '''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {8. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?<br> '''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?<br> '''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {10. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?<br> '''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {11. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?<br> '''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {12. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?<br> '''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} [[Category:Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 0fp44f7vcpvb8wa3fphm76gqkmws6pc 2830431 2830430 2026-09-02T08:29:03Z Jtneill 10242 /* Reason → Type */ 2830431 wikitext text/x-wiki == Quiz: Identify the type of motivation == This 12-item quiz tests your knowledge of Deci and Ryan's (2000) taxonomy of motivation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} <div style="text-align: center;"> ''Why does someone exercise?'' ''Why do you exercise?'' </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} Match the reasons someone might exercise with the type of motivation. For help, see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|psychological needs]] (Tutorial 4). ==Reason → Type== <quiz display=simple> {1. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.'''" |type="()"} + Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {2. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''My doctor told me to exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation + External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {3. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I feel guilty when I don't exercise.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation + Introjection - Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {4. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Being fit is important to me.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection + Identification - Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {5. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''Taking care of my body is part of who I am.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification + Integration - Intrinsic motivation </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {6. Which type of motivation is illustrated by this reason?<br> "'''I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.'''" |type="()"} - Amotivation - External regulation - Introjection - Identification - Integration + Intrinsic motivation </quiz> ==Type → Reason== <quiz display=simple> {7. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>amotivation</u>?<br> '''Amotivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} + “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {8. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>external regulation</u>?<br> '''External regulation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” + “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {9. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>introjection</u>?<br> '''Introjection is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” + “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {10. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>identification</u>?<br> '''Identification is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” + “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {11. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>integration</u>?<br> '''Integration is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” + “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” - “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {12. Which reason for exercise best illustrates <u>intrinsic motivation</u>?<br> '''Intrinsic motivation is indicated by someone saying:''' |type="()"} - “I don't see any point in exercising because it doesn't make a difference.” - “My doctor told me I have to exercise.” - “I feel guilty when I don't exercise.” - “Being fit is important to me.” - “Taking care of my body is part of who I am.” + “I exercise because I genuinely enjoy being active.” </quiz> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., & Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf PDF]}} [[Category:Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]] 7y05xbxedy47g64l6gu0k4jxd6y9s3z 0 331779 2830443 2026-09-02T10:34:33Z Andy?yes 3006471 Created page with " See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Medical Surgical Nursing</big> == == Summary == *" 2830443 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Medical Surgical Nursing</big> == == Summary == * 69gc9jizto5ehekn853x7guy87s7ph5 2830444 2830443 2026-09-02T10:35:44Z Andy?yes 3006471 2830444 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Medical Surgical Nursing</big> == == Summary == ''Medical-Surgical Nursing'' is a comprehensive and engaging resource for nursing students, equipping them with the essential knowledge and skills required to provide high-quality care. Building on the foundational knowledge and skills acquired in previous nursing courses, this textbook expands students’ learning with concepts in medical-surgical nursing. The offering provides the background to ensure that nursing students are well-versed in both the science and art of nursing, capable of critical thinking, clinical judgment, and compassionate care. * OpenStax Medical-Surgical Nursing (original content). Available as pdf or web view. * OpenStax Medical-Surgical Nursing audiobook Available as audio textbook. sxpqnr2s85i4qi19a88w2a27aci9w2f 2830445 2830444 2026-09-02T10:36:22Z Andy?yes 3006471 2830445 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Medical Surgical Nursing</big> == == Summary == ''Medical-Surgical Nursing'' is a comprehensive and engaging resource for nursing students, equipping them with the essential knowledge and skills required to provide high-quality care. Building on the foundational knowledge and skills acquired in previous nursing courses, this textbook expands students’ learning with concepts in medical-surgical nursing. The offering provides the background to ensure that nursing students are well-versed in both the science and art of nursing, capable of critical thinking, clinical judgment, and compassionate care. * [https://openstax.org/details/books/medical-surgical-nursing OpenStax Medical-Surgical Nursing] (original content). Available as pdf or web view. * [https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/medical-surgical-nursing/ OpenStax Medical-Surgical Nursing audiobook] Available as audio textbook. 7el230whm2eiaakk1vp139huwne6qh4 0 331780 2830449 2026-09-02T10:41:21Z Andy?yes 3006471 Created page with "See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Pharmacology for Nurses</big> == == Summary == ''Pharmacology for Nurses'' is intended for nursing students in an introductory program. It provides a fundamental understanding of the therapeutic use of drugs, so the nurse can provide safe and effective care to the client. Along with a discussion of each body system, the text also reviews the pathophysiology of various disease processes and medications used in treatment...." 2830449 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Pharmacology for Nurses</big> == == Summary == ''Pharmacology for Nurses'' is intended for nursing students in an introductory program. It provides a fundamental understanding of the therapeutic use of drugs, so the nurse can provide safe and effective care to the client. Along with a discussion of each body system, the text also reviews the pathophysiology of various disease processes and medications used in treatment. The table of contents presents 40 chapter topics, organized into 11 units. The first unit, consisting of 3 chapters, provides a broad overview of pharmacology, with the following 10 units focused on specific body systems. * OpenStax ''Pharmacology for Nurses'' (original content). Available as pdf or web view. * OpenStax ''Pharmacology for Nurses'' audiobook Available as audio textbook. jwaajmllv3gjpm77mijop02kvj4q0hb 2830450 2830449 2026-09-02T10:42:08Z Andy?yes 3006471 2830450 wikitext text/x-wiki See also [[OpenStax]] == <big>OpenStax</big> <big>Pharmacology for Nurses</big> == == Summary == ''Pharmacology for Nurses'' is intended for nursing students in an introductory program. It provides a fundamental understanding of the therapeutic use of drugs, so the nurse can provide safe and effective care to the client. Along with a discussion of each body system, the text also reviews the pathophysiology of various disease processes and medications used in treatment. The table of contents presents 40 chapter topics, organized into 11 units. The first unit, consisting of 3 chapters, provides a broad overview of pharmacology, with the following 10 units focused on specific body systems. * [https://openstax.org/details/books/pharmacology OpenStax Pharmacology for Nurses] (original content). Available as pdf or web view. * [https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/pharmacology-for-nurses/ OpenStax Pharmacology for Nurses audiobook] Available as audio textbook. ktsjb75qzq5ihd2nwke4o43y6cu1x9v 6 331781 2830456 2026-09-02T11:21:20Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260902 - 20260901) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830456 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260902 - 20260901) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} m4j1ltypwaf3trfy6uhhzthmssv13hp 6 331782 2830461 2026-09-02T11:36:24Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Copilot: File Control B. Duplicate (20260831 - 20260824) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2830461 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Copilot: File Control B. Duplicate (20260831 - 20260824) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} s02cx346p19kl2ckf8cegj0imy91d20 6 331783 2830463 2026-09-02T11:38:38Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Copilot: File Control B. Duplicate (20260901 - 20260831) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-02 |Author=Young W. 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